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II  INJURIOUS  m 
INSECTS 

How  to  Recognize 
and  Control  Them 

W.CO'Kam 


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This  book  is  due  on  the  date  indicated 
below  and  is  subject  to  an  overdue  fine 
as  posted  at  the  Circulation  Desk. 


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INJURIOUS   INSECTS 


THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON    •    CHICAGO 
DALLAS    •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


The   Colorado   Potato-beetle. 

Forerunner  of  Modern  Methods  of  Insect  Control. 

Original.  See  pages  03  and  145. 


INJURIOUS  INSECTS 


HOW  TO  EECOaNIZE  AND  CONTROL  THEM 


BY 
WALTER   C.    O'KANE 

ENTOMOLOGIST    TO    THE    NEW   HAMPSHIRE    EXPERI3IENT    STATION 

AND    PROFESSOR    OF    ECONOMIC    ENTOMOLOGY    IN 

NEW    HAMPSHIRE    COLLEGE 


ILLUSTBATED  WITH  600  OBIGINAL  PHOTOGBAFHS 


Nebj  gork 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

1912 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1912, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  Novembei 


J.  S.  Cushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


TO 

HERBERT   OSBORN 

DEVOTED    SCIENTIST    •    INSPIRING    TEACHER 
GENUINE    ERIEND 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  his  obligation  to  the  many 
friends  and  co-workers  who  loaned  or  gave  specimens  needed  for  the 
preparation  of  the  illustrations  in  this  book. 

While  all  of  the  illustrations  are  original  and  are  prepared  from 
photographs  by  the  author,  it  would  not  have  been  possible  to  carry 
through  this  part  of  the  work  without  the  help  of  others. 

The  late  Dr.  J.  B.  Smith  gave  freely  many  excellent  specimens 
from  his  collections.  A  great  deal  of  valuable  material  was  furnished 
by  Dr.  E.  P.  Felt.  Special  acknowledgment  is  due  also  to  Dr.  L.  0. 
Howard  and  his  associates,  Mr.  A.  L.  Quaintance,  Dr.  F.  H.  Chitten- 
den, Mr.  W.  D.  Hunter,  Mr.  F.  M.  Webster,  Mr.  E.  A.  Schwarz,  Dr. 
A.  D.  Hopkins,  Dr.  H.  G.  Dyar,  Mr.  So  A.  Rohwer,  and  Mr.  Otto 
Heidemann. 

Similar  generous  courtesies  were  extended  by  Dr.  W.  E.  Britton, 
Mr.  P.  J.  Parrott,  Professor  G.  W.  Herrick,  Dr.  S.  A.  Forbes,  Pro- 
fessor H.  A.  Gossard,  Professor  H.  Osborn,  Professor  C.  P.  Gillette, 
Dr.  T,  J.  Headlee,  Professor  F.  L.  Washburn,  Professor  Wilmon 
Newell,  Professor  R.  H.  Pettit,  Dr.  E.  D.  Ball,  Mr.  E.  L.  Worsham, 
Dr.  H.  T.  Fernald,  Prof.  Franklin  Sherman,  Jr.,  Dr.  W.  E.  Hinds, 
Professor  H.  Garman,  Mr.  Lawson  Caesar,  Professor  T.  B.  Symons, 
Mr.  N.  E.  Shaw,  Dr.  E.  G.  Titus,  Dr.  Leonard  Haseman,  Dr.  Edith 
M.  Patch,  Prof.  R.  L.  Webster,  Mr.  J.  S.  Houser,  Prof.  A.  G.  Ruggles, 
Mr.  C.  R.  Crosby,  Mr.  F.  E.  Brooks,  Mr.  Patricio  Cardin,  Mr.  J.  J. 
Davis,  Dr.  H.  J.  FrankUn,  and  Mr.  W.  S.  Abbott. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  here  made  to  the  author's  assistants. 
Miss  Cornelia  F.  Kephart  and  Mr.  C.  H.  Hadley,  Jr.,  for  their  invalu- 
able and  skillful  help  throughout  the  work  of  preparing  both  illustra- 
tions and  manuscript. 


^       AKRANGEMENT   OF   INJURIOUS   SPECIES   IN 

THIS   BOOK 

The  insect  pests  described  in  this  book  are  grouped  as  follows : 

1.  Pests  of  garden  and  field  crops;  including  all  injurious  species 
commonly  found  on  such  plants  as  corn,  potatoes,  cucumbers,  wheat, 
squashes,  and  the  like.    With  these  are  included  pests  of  greenhouses. 

2.  Pests  of  orchard  and  small  fruits:  the  common  injurious  species 
of  apples  and  other  tree  fruits,  currants  and  similar  bush  fruits,  and 
strawberries  or  other  low-growing  plants,  usually  designated  as  fruits. 

3.  Pests  of  the  household,  of  stored  products,  and  of  domestic  ani- 
mals. These  comprise  the  common  injurious  species  that  do  not  feed 
on  living  plants. 

Within  each  of  the  first  two  groups  the  various  species  are  arranged 
according  to  the  place  where  they  are  found  at  work.  Thus,  insects  that 
work  within  the  soil  are  treated  first;  then  the  borers  found  within 
stem,  trunk,  or  imb;  then  the  pests  found  feeding  on  the  surface  of 
stem  or  trunk;  then  the  leaf  feeders;  and  finally  the  insects  attacking 
flower  or  fruit.  Among  leaf  feeders,  again,  the  insects  are  grouped 
according  to  their  general  characteristics,  whether  caterpillars,  sucking 
bugs,  and  so  on. 

The  page  headings  are  arranged  to  serve  as  an  index  to  the  place 
where  an  insect  is  found  at  work,  and  its  general  characteristics. 

The  author  hopes  by  this  means  to  facilitate  the  identification  of  a 
pest  by  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  insects,  and  to  avoid  as 
far  as  possible  the  duplication  inevitable  where  one  attempts  to  group 
pests  according  to  host  plants  —  a  confusion  unavoidable  because  so 
many  of  our  common  pests  feed  on  several  varieties  of  plants,  and 
may  properly  be  listed  as  well  under  one  as  under  another. 


CONTENTS 


I.  Introduction 3 

II.  The  Parts  of  an  Insect's  Body 7 

III.  The  Internal  Structure  of  Insects  ....  11 

IV.  The  Senses  of  Insects 16 

V.  The  Behavior  of  Insects        .        .        .        .        .        .18 

VI.  How  Insects  Transform 19 

VII.  How  Insects  are  Classified 22 

VIII.  How  Insects  Spread 40 

IX.  Insects  as  Carriers  of  Disease   .....  42 

X.  The  Natural  Enemies  of  Insects        ....  45 

XI.  Farm  Practice  in  Relation  to  Insect  Control      .  56 

XII.  Direct  Control  by  Mechanical  Means    ...  59 

XIII.  Insecticides — General  Principles      ...  63 

XIV.  Poison  Insecticides  —  For  Biting  Insects         .        .  65 
XV.  Contact  Insecticides  —  For  Sucking  Insects  .        .  70 

XVI.  Repellents 79 

XVII.  FUMIGANTS 80 

XVIII.  Fungicides  Combined  with  Poisons    ....  85 
XIX.  Spray  Machinery  —  General  Principles  ...  89 
XX.  Types  and  Sizes  of  Spray  Pumps.     Dusting  Appa- 
ratus          92 

XXI.  Accessories 100 

XXII.  Insect  Pests  of  Garden  and  Field  Crops        .         .  107 

XXIII.  Insect  Pests  of  Orchard  and  Small  Fruits    .        .  224 

XXIV.  Insect  Pests  of  the  Household  and  Stored  Prod- 

ucts            349 

XXV.  Insect  Pests  of  Domestic  Animals     ....  371 

xi 


PART   I 

THE  STRUCTURE,  HABITS,  AND  CLASSI 
FICATION   OF   INSECTS 


n^JURIOUS   INSECTS 

CHAPTER  I 

Introduction 
The  Tax  paid  to  Insects 

Insects  exact  of  the  human  race  an  enormous  toll  m  property  injured 
and  destroyed.  Unfortunately,  in  the  interrelations  of  life,  most  things 
that  man  desires,  uses,  or  needs  are  the  natural  food  of  one  or  another 
species  of  insect,  usually  of  many. 

Specific  examples  of  insect  depredations  give  one  some  notion  of  the 
total.  Thus,  in  a  hmited  area  in  southern  Indiana  and  near-by  counties, 
a  species  of  cutworm  attacking  com  caused  a  loss  in  one  year,  1908,  of 
$200,000.  The  tobacco  flea  beetle  in  a  single  season,  in  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  inflicted  damage  to  the  extent  of  $2,000,000.  Injury 
by  a  plant  louse,  the  pea  aphis,  in  two  years  of  abundance,  was  esti- 
mated at  $7,000,000.  In  the  Black  Hills  National  Forest,  a  species  of 
beetle  has  destroyed  timber  representing  at  least  1,000,000,000  feet  of 
lumber.  The  annual  price  of  the  boll  weevil  to  cotton  growers  is  figured 
at  $15,000,000  to  $30,000,000.  Losses  due  to  the  cattle  tick  reach  a 
total  of  $40,000,000  each  season.  In  a  single  year  of  excessive  abun- 
dance the  Hessian  fly  exacted  from  our  farmers  an  estimated  total  of 
$100,000,000.  In  Ohio  the  yield  of  wheat  in  that  one  season  dropped 
from  15  bushels  per  acre  to  6.  The  ravages  of  the  chinch  bug  in  our 
crops  of  wheat  and  corn  in  the  last  60  years  are  believed  to  reach  the 
sum  of  $350,000,000. 

Yet  these  examples  are  but  one  phase  of  the  matter,  representing  a 
few  of  the  notable  insect  outbreaks  that  have  been  studied  and  esti- 

3 


4  INTRODUCTION- 

mated.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  annual  toll  goes  unrecorded,  — 
often  unnoticed.  Each  season  every  crop  on  every  farm  pays  its  tax, 
whether  large  or  small,  to  the  bus}^,  six-footed  creatures  that  look  to  it 
for  food.  It  is  only  when  we  stop  to  consider  what  this  total  must  be, 
reckoned  as  a  percentage  of  the  value  of  all  crops  combined,  that  its 
tremendous  proportions  become  evident. 

The  best  observers  agree  that,  in  the  average,  insect  depredations 
equal  at  least  10  per  cent  of  the  value  of  all  farm  crops.  Our  agricul- 
tural products  in  this  country  have  now  reached  an  annual  worth  of 
$10,000,000,000.  The  total  damage  wrought  by  insects,  therefore,  may 
fairly  be  placed  at  $1,000,000,000  each  season!  This  is  nearly  five 
times  as  great  as  the  combined  appropriations  for  the  United  States 
army  and  navy;  is  equal  to  the  entire  bonded  debt  of  the  United 
States ;  is  more  than  four  times  the  annual  property  loss  by  fire ;  more 
than  fourteen  times  the  annual  income  of  all  colleges  in  this  country ; 
is  sixty  times  greater  than  the  funds  allotted  annually  to  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Value  of  a  Knowledge  of  Insects 

Unquestionably,  the  loss  due  to  insect  attack  may  be  reduced  ma- 
terially by  the  adoption  of  proper  methods  of  prevention  and  control. 
In  many  cases,  the  program  to  adopt  involves  no  direct  fighting,  such  as 
spraying,  but  simply  the  shaping  of  farm,  garden,  or  orchard  practice 
along  lines  unfavorable  to  the  insects  concerned  —  such  matters  as 
judicious  rotation  of  crops,  or  cleaning  fields  of  weeds.  To-day's 
warfare  against  insect  pests  strives  toward  prevention  as  well  as  cure. 

In  order  to  plan  our  campaign  intelligently  we  need  to  know  the 
more  important  general  facts  about  insects  as  a  class  :  the  main  charac- 
teristics of  the  different  groups  with  which  we  have  to  deal ;  how  they 
have  fitted  themselves  to  survive  and  multiply;  what  measures  of 
control  are  adapted  to  particular  groups ;  how  the  structure  and  habits 
of  one  group  render  it  susceptible  to  certain  kinds  of  control  measures, 
such  as  spraying,  while  in  other  groups  wholl}^  different  measures  are 
necessary.  To  know  these  general  facts  is  to  possess  a  fundamental 
advantage  in  conducting  successful  warfare.     Not  to  know  them  usu- 


CHARACTERISTICS    OF  INSECTS  5 

ally  means  the  loss  of  time  and  money  in  attempting  unsuitable  remedies 
or  neglecting  good  opportunities. 


Characteristics  of  Insects 

The  place  of  insects  in  the  animal  world  is  in  a  group  known  as 
Ai'thropoda,  a  word  meaning  ''  jointed  foot."  They  are  related  on  the 
one  hand  to  spiders,  scorpions,  and  cen- 
tipedes, and  on  the  other  to  crabs, 
crayfish,  and  the  other  crustaceans. 
With  these  animals  they  have  various 
points  in  common ;  for  example,  a  hard- 
ened body  wall  or  "  external  skeleton," 
jointed  legs  occurring  always  in  pairs, 
and  a  body  made  up  of  distinct  rings  or 
segments. 

Other  characteristics  are  peculiar  to 
insects  alone,  and  serve  to  define  them. 
These  are  as  follows :  a  body  composed 
of  three  distinct  regions,  head,  thorax, 
and  abdomen;  one  pair  of  compound 

eyes;  one  pair  of  antennae,  or  "feelers";  three  pairs  of  legs;  two 
pairs  of  wings ;  and  a  peculiar,  complicated  type  of  growth,  called 
metamorphosis,  by  which  the  individual  goes  through  three  or  four 
unlike  stages  in  its  life  round. 


Fig.  1.  —  A  mite.  An  ar- 
thropod, related  to  insects. 
Enlarged  and  natural  .size. 
Original. 


Fig.  2. — A  typical  insect,  showing  the  parts  of  the  body  and  the  attachment 
of  appendages.     Original. 


Fig.  3.  —  Types  of  antennae, 
a.  pectinate;  6,  moniliform ;  c,  filiform;  d,  lamellate;  e,  capitate;  /.geniculate;  g,  cla- 
vate ;  h,  serrate.    Original. 
6 


CHAPTER  II 


The  Parts  of  an  Insect's  Body 


The  Head 

Adult  insects  have  a  more  or  less  distinct  head,  varying  greatly  in 
shape  according  to  the  habits  of  the  species. 

Prominent  on  either  side,  near  the  top  of  the  head,  are  usually  to  be 
seen  the  compound  eyes.  These 
are  very  large  in  some  groups, 
such  as  the  horseflies  or  dragon 
flies,  which  need  to  have  espe- 
cially good  vision,  but  are  absent 
in  some  other  groups,  such  as 
certain  parasites,  which  have  little 
need  of  the  ability  to  see.  A  com- 
pound eye  is  made  up  of  many 
lenses,  each  with  its  own  sensi- 
tive area  and  nerve.  The  num- 
ber of  these  lenses  often  is  great ; 
the  common  house  fly  has  about 
4000  on  each  side. 

Between  or  above  the  compound 
eyes  are  usually  three  simple  eyes. 
out  readily  by  looking  closely. 

Near  the  compound  eyes  are  the  antennae,  or  "  feelers."  Their 
shape  is  diverse  with  the  different  groups,  and  is  one  of  the  valuable 
means  of  determining  the  identity  of  many  insects,  or  of  placing  a 
specimen  in  its  proper  group.  Eight  or  ten  general  types  of  antennae 
are  recognized. 

7 


Fig.  4.  —  Head  of  a  beetle,  showing 
mouth  parts.  Enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original. 

These  are  small,  but  can  b^  made 


8 


THE   PARTS    OF   AN  INSECT'S   BODY 


The  remaining  prominent  structures  on  the  head  of  an  insect  are 
the  mouth  parts.  From  a  practical  standpoint,  there  is  no  other 
one  thing  in  the  makeup  of  an  insect's  bod}^  so  important  as  the  type 
of  mouth  parts  in  a  given  pest. 

All  insects  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  according  to  whether 
they  obtain  their  food  by  biting  and  chewing,  or  b}'-  sucking ;  in  other 
words,  whether  they  have  l)iting  or  sucking  mouth  parts. 


Fig.  5.  —  Mouth  parts  of  a  beetle. 
a,  labrum  ;  b,  mandibles ;  c,  maxillae  ;  d,  labium  ;  e,  hypopharj-nx.     Origi 


If  we  examine  the  head  of  a  beetle,  for  instance,  we  shall  find  that 
it  possesses  a  distinct  pair  of  jaws,  or  mandibles,  obviously  intended 
for  chewing  or  biting.  Above  these  is  an  upper  lip,  or  labrum ;  below 
is  a  pair  of  maxillsB,  serving  to  hold  the  food  and  otherwise  to  assist 
in  eating ;  and  below  these  a  lower  lip  or  labium.  If  we  look  closely, 
we  shall  be  able  to  find  between  the  mouth  parts  the  insect's  tongue, 
or  hypopharynx. 


HEAD   AND    THORAX 


But  if  we  observe  the  head  of  a  squash  bug,  we  find  no  jaws  or  other 
parts  that  would  serve  to  chew  or  bite.  Instead  there  is  a  stout  beak, 
and  if  we  were  to  dissect  this,  we  should 
find  that  it  contained  a  tube  for  sucking 
ui)  plant  juices  or  other  fluids..  In  ad- 
dition, we  should  fuid  in  most  insects  of 
this  type,  two  or  three  pairs  of  lancets  within 
or  close  to  the  beak,  used  to  punctui'e  or 
rasp  the  tissues  so  as  to  induce  a  greater 
flow  of  the 
juices. 

Insects  with 
biting  mouth 
parts  may  be 
killed  by  cov- 
ering the  plant 
on  which  they 
feed  with  a 
poison,  such  as 
lead  arsenate. 
But  insects 
with  sucking 
mouth  parts 
do  not  eat  the  surface  of  the  plant  and  cannot  be  killed  by  applica- 
tions of  stomach  poison.  For  the  latter  other  remedies  must  be 
used,  such  as  some  substance  that  will  kill  the  insect  by  corrosive 
action  on  its  body. 

The  Thorax 

The  middle  part  of  an  insect's  body  is  called  the  thorax.  Usually 
it  has  three  distinct  rings,  or  segments.  On  each  segment  is  a  pair 
of  legs  and  on  each  of  the  last  two  is  a  pair  of  wings,  except  in  the 
group  of  two-winged  flies,  which  have  only  a  single  pair,  on  the  middle 
segment. 

An  insect's  leg  consists,  tj'pically,  of  a  small  joint  next  the  body, 
the  trochanter;   a  large  and  heavy  joint,  the  femur;   a  slender  tibia; 


Fig. 


6.  —  Mouth  parts  of 
a  honeybee.  Enlarged. 
Original. 


Fig.  7.  —  Mouth  parts  of  a 
horsefly,  fitted  for  pierc- 
ing and  sucking.  Enlarged. 
Original. 


10 


THE  PARTS   OF  AN  INSECT'S  BODY 


Fig.  8.  —  Foot  of  an  in- 
sect, showing  claws  and 
pulvillus.  Enlarged. 
Original. 


and  a  foot,  or  tarsus,  made  up  of  five  joints, 
or  sometimes  less.  On  the  end  of  the  tarsus 
often  occur  claws  between  which  is  a  small 
pad,  or  pulvillus. 

The  wings  vary  greatly  in  size,  shape,  and 
texture.  They  constitute  an  important  char- 
acter in  separating  insects  into  various  groups, 
as  will  be  seen.  For  example,  beetles  are 
easily  recognized  by  the  possession  of  a  front 
pair  of  wings  that  are  hardened  or  horny 
and  serve  simply  as  covers  for  the  large, 
membranous  hind  wings. 


The  Abdomen 

The  third,  or  hind  part  of  an  insect's  body  is  called  the  abdomen. 
It  consists  often  of  ten  rings  or  segments,  though  frequently  this 
number  is  reduced.  There  are  never  any  legs  on  the  abdomen  of  the 
adult  insect.  At  the  hind  extremity  in  both  sexes  are  the  reproduc- 
tive organs.  The  two  sexes  are  invariably  separate  in  insects,  and 
never  normally  combined  in  a  single  individual  as  in  some  other  forms 
of  lower  animal  life. 


CHAPTER  III 


The  Internal  Structure  of  Insects 


How  Insects  Breathe 


All  insects,  even  those  living  in  water,  need  air.  But  their  method 
of  obtaining  it  is  entirely  different  from  that  developed  in  higher 
animals.  No  insect  has 
nostrils,  or  any  opening  in 
its  head  through  which  it 
breathes.  Instead,  there  is 
a  row  of  small  apertures, 
called  spiracles,  down  each 
side  of  its  body,  one  on 
each  segment,  beginning 
with  the  second  or  third 
segment  of  the  thorax  and 
extending  back  along  the 
rings  of  the  abdomen.  The 
spiracles  of  each  side  open 
into  an  air  tube  running 
lengthwise  of  the  insect, 
just  within  the  body  wall. 
From  these  main  tubes 
smaller  tubes  diverge,  and 
these  in  turn  branch  and  re- 
branch, growing  constantly 
smaller,  until  the  finer  tubes 
permeate  every  part  of  the 
insect,  even  to  the  tips  of 

the  antennae  and  the  joints  of  the  feet.     The  tubes  are  known  as 
tracheae  and  the  entire  group  as  the  tracheal  system.     The  smaller 

11 


Fig.  9. 


Tracheal  system  of  an  insect.     (Dia- 
grammatic.)    Original. 


12 


THE  INTERNAL   STRUCTURE    OF  INSECTS 


Fig. 


10.  —  Spiracles  of  a  grasshopper. 
Enlarged.     Original. 


higher  animals,  whose 
blood  circulates  in  ar- 
teries, veins,  and  capil- 
laries. In  insects  the 
blood  flows  freely  around 
the  internal  organs  and 
through  the  tissues. 

There  is  a  heart,  how- 
ever, which  keeps  the 
blood  moving.  It  is  an 
elongated  structure,  situ- 
ated just  beneath  the 
upper  surface  of  the  in- 
sect's body,  and  consists 
of  a  series  of  chambers, 
each  with  valves  opening 
from  the  body  cavity 
into  the  chamber,  and 
with  another  valve  open- 
ing into  the  next  chamber 
toward    the   front.      The 


trachea)  are  extremely  thin  walled, 
and  the  oxygen  that  they  contain 
is  thus  brought  to  the  various 
tissues.  Air  circulates  slowly  in 
the  tracheae.  The  openings  or 
spiracles  are  guarded  by  various 
devices,  such  as  a  fringe  of  hairs. 

The  Circulatory  System 

The  entire  body  cavity  of  an 
insect  is  bathed  in  a  yellowish  or 
greenish  fluid  that  we  speak  of  as 
its  blood.  There  is  no  closed 
system  of  blood  vessels,  as  in  the 


Fig.  U. 


insect's  heart. 
Original. 


(Diagrammatic.) 


THE  DIGESTIVE   SYSTEM 


13 


end  of  the  heart  toward  the  head  opens  into  the  body  cavity. 
When  the  heart  contracts,  the  blood  it  contains  is  forced  forward, 
and  when  it  expands,  more  blood  is  admitted  through  the  side  valves. 

The  Digestive  System 

There  is  a  fairly  close  parallel  between  the  digestive  system  of  in- 
sects and  that  of  some  higher  animals.     The  various  organs  concerned 


Fig.  12.  —  Digestive  system  of  an  insect.     (Diagrammatic.)     Original. 


are  much  modified  in  many  species,  according  to  their  food  habits; 
but  taking  a  typical  group,  we  find  the  following  parts : 

From  the  mouth  the  food  passes  through  a  pharynx  and  is  con- 
veyed by  a  gullet  or  esophagus  to  a  crop,  which  serves  as  a  storage 
place.  Thence  it  enters  the  gizzard,  where  it  is  ground  up,  and  so 
passes  on  into  the  stomach,  where  part  of  the  digestion  and  absorp- 


14 


THE  INTERNAL   STRUCTURE    OF  INSECTS 


tion  takes  place.     Thence  it  enters  the  intestine,   where  it  is  still 
further  digested.     The  waste  is  expelled  from  the  hind  end  of  the  body. 
Opening  into  the  intestine  near  the  stomach  are  tubes  that  prob- 
ably serve  as  kidneys.     They  are  known  as  Malpighian  tubes. 

The  Nervous  System 

Most  insects  are  extremely  active  creatures,  and   have  a  well-de- 
veloped nervous  system. 

Taking  a  simple  type,  we  find  that  a  pair  of  nerve  cords  begin  in 

the  upper  part  of  the  head, 
encircle  the  esophagus,  one 
on  each  side,  again  come 
close  together  or  unite,  and 
extend  back  to  the  hind  ex- 
tremity of  the  body,  lying 
just  above  the  lower  body 
wall  throughout. 

In  the  upper  part  of  the 
head  and  in  the  lower  part 
are  enlargements,  called 
ganglia,    from    which    are 
given  off  branch  nerves  to 
the    eyes,    antennae,     and 
mouth  parts.    In  the  thorax 
there  are  three  more  ganglia, 
one  for  each  segment,  though 
these  may  be  more  or  less 
united.     In  the  abdomen  are  further  ganglia,  often  somewhat  concen- 
trated toward  the  front  end  of  the  abdomen.     Many  branch  nerves 
arise  from  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  ganglia. 


Fig.  13.  —  Gizzard  of  a  cricket,  showing 
muscles  and  grinding  surfaces.  Enlarged. 
Original. 


The  Fat  Bodies 

Within  the  body  cavity  are  many  irregular  masses  of  peculiar  fatty 
tissue.  The  functions  of  these  masses  are  not  fully  understood.  It 
is  known,  however,  that  reserve  food  is  stgred  up  in  them,  especially 


THE    BODY    WALLS  15 

in  the  case  of  caterpillars  that  are  reaching  full  growth  and  getting 
ready  to  transform. 


Fig.  14.  —  Nervous  system  of  an  insect.     (Diagrammatic.)     Original. 

The  Body  Walls 

The  bodies  of  most  insects  are  covered  with  a  more  or  less  horny 
or  hard  coating,  to  which  the  muscles  are  attached,  and  which  takes 
the  place  of  the  bony,  internal  skeleton  of  higher  animals.  The  basis 
of  this  coating  is  a  fluid  substance  called  chitin,  which  hardens  on 
exposure  to  air.  In  order  to  permit  of  movement,  this  outer  shell  is 
made  up  of  distinct  plates,  joined  to  one  another  by  flexible  skin. 


CHAPTER  IV 


The  Senses  of  Insects 


It  is  obvious  that  most  insects  possess  a  well-developed  power  of 
sight.  It  is  not  believed  that  they  have  the  ability  to  form  images 
of  objects,  in  other  words  to  "  see,"  with  the  precision  of  higher  ani- 
mals. To  a  limited  extent  the  compound  eyes  probably  give  an  insect 
certain  powers  of  forming  images  up  to  a  short  distance  —  not 
more  than  a  few  feet.     They  undoubtedly  are  well  adapted  to  discern 

movement.  The  ocelli,  or  simple  eyes, 
are  fomied  somewhat  on  the  plan  of  the 
human  eye ;  but  the  lens  is  of  fixed  focus, 
and  the  number  of  nerves  in  the  retina  is 
comparatively  small. 

The  sense  of  hearing  is  well  known  to 
exist  among  many  insects.     The  location 
of  the  auditory  apparatus  has  been  de- 
termined in  certain  species.      Thus,  the 
antennse  of  some  insects  are  known  to 
have   auditory  functions ;    grasshoppers 
have  an  "  ear  "  on  the   first  segment  of 
the    abdomen;    other    species    have    a 
similar  organ  on  the  foreleg. 
Most  insects  have  a  sense  of  taste.     The  hypopharynx,  or  tongue, 
and  short  appendages  attached  to  the  maxilla?,  or  lower  jaws,  are 
commonly  the  seat  of  this  sense. 

There  is  abundant  evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  sense  of  smell. 
In  fact  this  sense  is  particularly  well  developed  in  many  insects,  and 
serves  to  guide  them  to  their  food,  to  lead  the  females  to  the  proper 
plants  on  which  to  deposit  their  eggs,  and  often  to  bring  the  male  to 

16 


Fig.  15.  — Tongue  of  a  cricket. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


SPECIAL    SENSE    ORGANS  17 

the  female  at  mating  season.  Minute  structures  found  in  the  antennae 
and  the  maxillary  palpi  are  commonly  the  seat  of  the  olfactory  sense. 
All  insects  have  more  or  less  specially  developed  parts  for  exercising 
the  sense  of  touch.  The  antennae,  or  "  feelers,"  are  primarily  adapted 
to  serve  this  function,  but  hairs  or  bristles  connected  with  sensory 
nerves  occur  at  various  places  over  the  body.  This  would  be  expected, 
since  the  body  is  so  completely  covered  with  its  armor  of  chitin. 


CHAPTER  V 

The  Behavior  of  Insects 

Most  of  the  movements  of  insects  are  automatic  responses  to  a 
direct  external  stimulus.  For  example,  ants  of  certain  species  always 
move  away  from  the  hght ;-  flies,  toward  it.  Roaches  will  attempt  to 
crowd  into  narrow  crevices,  where  their  body  is  in  close  contact  all 
around  with  the  surrounding  substance.  Some  kinds  of  caterpillars 
habitually  crawl  toward  the  ends  of  twigs,  or  contrary  to  gravity. 
Aquatic  insects  move  toward  water. 

Most  of  the  movements  of  insects,  if  carefully  analyzed,  will  be 
found  explainable  as  some  of  these  simple  reactions.  But  there  is 
another  group  of  movements  that  are  really  complex.  An  example 
is  seen  in  the  spinning  of  its  cocoon  by  a  caterpillar.  Here  we  have 
genuine  evidence  of  the  workings  of '  instinct.  Yet  even  these  ex- 
amples of  insect  behavior  have  one  point  in  common ;  they  are  started 
by  some  simple  stimulus,  and  once  set  going,  they  invariably  are 
carried  out  to  the  same  conclusion,  regardless  of  circumstances.  Thus, 
a  female  codling  moth,  the  parent  of  the  common  worm  found  in 
apples,  frequently  lays  its  eggs  on  the  leaves  of  trees  which  are  bear- 
ing no  fruit,  with  the  inevitable  result  that  all  its  offspring  die. 

Rarely,  in  the  highly  specialized  orders,  such  as  the  bees  or  ants, 
insects  are  observed  to  follow  a  procedure  that  seems  to  demand 
some  reasoning  power  as  its  basis.  An  indi\'idual  apparently  will 
learn  by  experience,  and  voluntarily  modify  its  procedure  in  going 
through  a  similar  action.  Such  cases,  however,  are  not  common. 
Most  insect  behavior  is  automatic  and  purely  reflex. 


18 


CHAPTER  VI 

How  Insects  Transform 

All  insects,  except  two  primitive  groups  of  little  importance,  go 
through  distinct  changes  of  form  in  the  Ufe  round  of  the  individual. 
These  changes  constitute  what  is  known  as  metamorphosis. 


Fig.  16.  —  Illustrating  complete  metamorphosis.  Egg,  larva  or  caterpillar, 
cocoon  and  pupa,  and  adult  of  the  Rusty  Tussock  Moth,  Hejnerocampa  an- 
tiqua  Linn.     Original. 

Thus,  the  cabbage  butterfly  lays  an  egg.     From  the  egg  hatches  a 
tiny  "  worm  "  or  larva.     The  larva  grows,  and  in  due  time  changes 

19 


20  HOW  INSECTS    TRANSFORM 

to  a  "  chrysalis  "  or  pupa.  And  finally,  from  the  pupa  emerges  the 
winged  butterfly,  ready  to  begin  the  life  round  over  again.  This  is 
an  example  of  complete  metamorphosis,  including  four  distinct  stages  — 
egg,  larva,  pupa,  and  adult. 

With  the  squash  bug  we  find  the  adult  laying  an  egg,  as  before. 
But  from  this  egg  hatches,  not  a  larva  or  worm,  but  a  tiny,  active  bug, 


Fig.  17.  —  Illustrating  incomplete  metamorphosis.      Eggs,  nymphs,  and  adult 
of  the  Squash  Bug,  Anasa  tristis  De  G.     Original. 

similar  to  the  parent  insect  except  that  it  has  no  wings.  This  immature 
form  grows,  shedding  its  skin  four  or  five  times,  and  finally  with  the 
last  moult  acquires  its  wings  and  is  now  a  typical  adult.  The  imma- 
ture stage  is  known  as  a  nymph,  and  this  is  an  example  of  incomplete 
metamorphosis,  including  only  three  distinct  stages  instead  of  four  — 
egg,  nymph,  and  adult. 

In  all  insects  the  larval  or  nymph  stage  is  the  period  of  growth. 


TYPES    OF  METAMORPHOSIS  21 

To  this  stage  belongs  primarily  the  function  of  feeding  and  growing. 
The  adult  insect  may  or  may  not  feed,  but  it  never  grows.  To  the 
adult  stage  belongs  the  function  of  mating  and  thus  perpetuating  the 
race.  The  pupa,  which  we  find  in  insects  with  complete  metamor- 
phosis, represents  a  resting  stage  devised  to  accommodate  the  tre- 
mendous changes  taking  place  in  the  transformation  of  the  wormlike 
larva  into  the  winged  adult. 

The  type  of  metamorphosis  constitutes  a  fundamental  character  in 
separating  insects  into  groups. 


CHAPTER  VII 


How  Insects  are  Classified 


More  than  350,000  distinct  species  of  insects  have  been  described. 

In  addition  at  least  as  many  more  remain  to  be  studied  and  classified. 

Obviously,  in  all  this  array,  there  must  be  certain  groups  that  have 

many  characters  in 
common,  or  give 
indication  that  at 
some  period  in  the 
remote  past  they 
were  derived  from 
common  ancestors. 
These  groups  are 
known  as  Orders. 

There    are    more 
than  twenty  recog- 
nized orders    of  in- 
sects, but  the  great 
majority  of  injurious 
species  are  included 
in  ten  principal  eco- 
nomic orders.     The 
leading    characteris- 
tics     distinguishing 
these  from  one  an- 
other are  the  type  of  metamorphosis,  the  kind  of  mouth  parts,  the 
number,    shape,   and  texture  of  the  wings,   the  presence  or  absence 
of  compound  eyes,  the  type  of  antennae,  and  the  shape  of  the  body. 
The  ten  principal  orders  and  their  characteristics  are  as  follows: 

22 


Fig.  18. — A  typical  specimen  of  the  order  Orthop- 
tera.     Original. 


ORTHOPTERA 


23 


Orthoptera 

Familiar  to  all  are  many  of  the  species  that  go  to  make  up  this 
order:    the  grasshoppers,  katydids,  crickets,  and  roaches. 

The  entire  group  is  characterized  by  incomplete  metamorphosis. 
The  immature  form  just  hatched  from  an  egg  is  quite  similar  in  appear- 
ance to  the  adult,  except  that  it  is  very  much  smaller,  and  that  it  has 
no  wings.  As  it  grows,  wing  pads  develop,  and  finally,  with  the  last 
moult,  the  adult  comes  forth. 

All  insects  in  this  order  have  biting  mouth  parts.  There  are  two 
pairs  of  wings.  The  front  pair  are  leathery,  and,  when  at  rest,  cover  the 
hind  pair,  which  are  thin 
and  papery,  and  are  folded 
in  plaits.  The  antennae 
vary,  but  frequently  are 
quite  long  and  slender. 

The  order  is  di\dded  into 
various  subgroups  or  fami- 
lies. Thus  we  have  the 
jumping  Orthoptera,  includ- 
ing the  Gryllidse  or  crickets, 
the  Acrididae  or  grasshop- 
pers, and  the  Locustidse  or 
katydids;  the  running  Or- 
thoptera, including  the  Blat- 

tidae  or  roaches;  the  grasping  Orthoptera,  including  the  Mantidse 
or  praying  mantids;  and  the  walking  Orthoptera,  including  the 
peculiar  insects  known  as  the  Phasmidse  or  walking  sticks. 

There  are  many  injurious  pests  in  this  order;  some  of  them,  such  as 
the  Rocky  Mountain  locust,  famous  for  the  devastation  that  they  have 
wrought  to  American  farms.  The  immature  stages,  or  nymphs,  as 
well  as  the  adults,  are  destructive,  though  in  less  degree  because  they 
are  smaller. 


-One  of  the  jumping  Orthoptera, 
or  GryUidae.     Original. 


24 


HOW  INSECTS   ARE    CLASSIFIED 


Mallophaga 

These  are  parasitic  insects,  commonly  known  as  bird  lice,  although 
there  are  some  species  that  infest  domestic  animals. 

The  metamorphosis  is  incomplete.     Eggs  laid  by  the  adult  female 

hatch   into  minute  creatures   looking 
much  like  the  mature  insect. 

The  members  of  this  order  are 
plainly  adapted  for  their  parasitic  life. 
The  body  is  flattened.  There  are  no 
compound  eyes.  Wings  are  absent. 
The  antennae  are  short  and  simple. 
The  mouth  parts  are  fitted  for  biting, 
and  the  food  consists  of  the  hairs  or 
feathers  of  the  host,  or  loose  scales  of 
''^I^^Hpf'  dead   skin.      The   Mallophaga   never 

^^^  feed  on  the  blood  of  their  host,  as  do 

the  members  of  the  order  Siphonaptera, 
the  fleas. 

^\l;gedTnd  naturfl  ^zT'  ofig-         ^^out  2000  species  have  been  de- 
inal.  scribed. 


Odonata 

The  adults  in  this  order  are  the  dragon  flies,  often  called  "  snake 
feeders  "  or  "  darning  needles." 

Metamorphosis  is  incomplete.  The  nymphs,  which  hatch  from  the 
eggs,  are  aquatic,  spending  their  lives  beneath  the  surface  of  ponds  or 
streams,  where  they  lead  an  active  existence,  capturing  and  devouring 
such  other  forms  of  animal  life  as  come  within  their  reach.  The  mouth 
parts  of  the  nymph  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  its  needs,  being  pro- 
vided with  a  hinged  lower  lip  which  can  be  extended,  and  which  bears 
hooks  on  its  farther  edge.  By  means  of  these  the  nymph  is  enabled  to 
catch  its  prey  unawares. 

The  adults  are  large  insects,  and  have  two  pairs  of  strong,  narrow, 


ODONATA  —  THYSANOPTERA 


25 


Fig.  21.  —  Adult  dragon  fly.     Original. 

membranous  wings.  Each  wing  is  marked  with  a  shallow  notch  about 
midway  along  its  front  margin.  Adults  as  well  as  nymphs  are  pre- 
dacious, Hving  on  other  insects  which  they 
capture.  Their  mouth  parts  are  of  the  biting 
type.  They  have  large  compound  eyes,  —  as, 
indeed,  we  should  expect  in  insects  that  live  by 
capturing  others.  The  abdomen  is  slim,  and 
is  never  provided  with  a  sting  of  any  sort,  as 
is  so  often  supposed. 

Insects  of  this  order  are  of  importance  be- 
cause they  make  a  business  of  capturing  in- 
dividuals of  other  species,  many  of  which  we 
may  reasonably  assume  would  be  injurious. 

The  order  has  been  carefully  studied,  and 
about  2000  species  have  been  described. 

Thysanoptera  Fig.  22.  —The  empty 

pupal  skin  of  a  dragon 
The  group  to  which   has   been   given   this        ^^     Original. 

name  is  made  up  of  very  small  insects,  many 

of  which  the  layman  will  recognize  rather  by  their  characteristic  work 

than  by  acquaintance  with  the  appearance  of  the  insect  itself.     Their 

common  name  is  "  Thrips." 


26 


HOW  INSECTS   ARE    CLASSIFIED 


Fig.  23.  —  Adult 
Euthrips  tritici 
Original. 


thrips, 
Fitch. 


Metamorphosis  is  incomplete.  Both 
nymphs  and  adults  are  slender  insects,  pro- 
vided with  sucking  mouth  parts.  The  adults 
have  two  pairs  of  peculiar  wings,  very  nar- 
row, almost  without  veins,  and  fringed  along 
the  margins  with  a  row  of  long  hairs,  set 
close  together.  The  wings  are  laid  along 
the  back  when  not  in  use.  In  most  species 
the  adults  are  not  more  than  one  tenth  or 
one  twelfth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  an- 
tennae are  comparatively  short  and  simple. 

Usually  the  presence  of  these  insects  is 
recognized  fu-st  by  a  whitening  of  the  leaves 
or  a  shriveling 
of  other  parts  on 

which  they  happen  to  be  feeding.     Close 

examination    will    then   reveal   the  tiny 

active  insect  itself. 

Hemiptera 

A  large  group,  including  the  true 
"  bugs,"  characterized  throughout  by 
sucking  mouth  parts. 

Metamorphosis  is  incomplete.  Active 
nymphs,  which  look  more  or  less  like  the 
adults  except  that  they  have  no  wings, 
hatch  from  the  eggs  laid  by  the  parent 
female. 

There  are  two  large  subdivisions  in 
this  order,  the  Homoptera  and  the  Het- 
eroptera,  distinguished  from  each  other 
by  the  tj^^e  of  wings,  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  beak  is  attached  to  the  head. 

In  the  Homoptera  the   wings,  four   in  number,   are  membranous 
throughout,  and  when  the  insect  is  at  rest,  usually  are  held  in  a  slop- 


FiG.  24.  —  A    cicada.       Sub- 
order Homoptera.   Original. 


HEMIPTERA  21 

ing  position  along  the  back,  like  the  two  sides  of  a  hip  roof.  The 
common  ''  locust,"  or  cicada,  is  a  familiar  example  of  this  suborder. 
In  the  Homoptera  the  sucking  beak  arises  from  the  hind  part  of 
the  lower  side  of  the  head. 

The  Heteroptera  are  well  illustrated  in  the  '*'  squash  bug."  In  this 
suborder  the  front  pair  of  wings  are  horny  in  the  half  nearest  the  in- 
sect's body,  and  thinner  in  the  outer  half.  The  hind  wings  are  mem- 
branous throughout.     When  at  rest,  the  front  wings  are  laid  along  the 


Fig.  25. — The   giant  water  bug,    Lethocerus  americanus   Leidy.      Suborder 
Heteroptera.     Original. 

back,  with  the  thin,  outer  halves  crossed,  one  on  top  of  the  other,  while 
the  hind  wings  are  concealed  beneath  the  front  pair.     Often,  when  the 
insect  is  at  rest,  its  wings  look  as  if  they  were  a  part  of  its  body,  though 
there  is  always  the  tell-tale  diagonal  line  where  the  thickened  part  of 
the  wing  gives  way  to  the  thinner  part.     In  the  Heteroptera  the  beak 
arises  from  the  front  part  of  the  head,  though  in  many  species  it  is 
sharply  bent  so  that  it  points  backward  beneath  the  head. 
The  more  important  families  of  Homoptera  are  as  follows : 
Cicadidae,  the  cicadas  or,  as  commonly  called,  "  locusts." 
Jassidae,  the  leaf  hoppers.     Destructive  pests. 


28 


HOW  INSECTS   ARE   CLASSIFIED 


Psj^llidse,  the  psyllas.     Minute,  jumping  forms.     Plant  feeders. 
Aphidida*,  the  plant  lice. 
Coccidae,  the  scale  insects  and  mealy  bugs. 
The  more  important  families  of  Heteroptera  are  as  follows  : 
Reduviidse,  the  assassin  bugs,     Predaceous  on  other  insects.     Occa- 
sionally  attack  man.       Have   a   strong, 
three-jointed  beak. 

Tingitidse,  the  lace  bugs.  Wings  finely 
reticulate,  looking  like  lace.  Plant  feed- 
ers. 

Acanthiida},  including  some  plant  feed- 
ers ;  also  the  common  bedbug. 

Capsidse,  the  leaf  bugs.  Usually  small. 
Often  injurious. 

Lygseidse,  the  chinch  bugs.  Destruc- 
tive plant  feeders. 

Coreidse,  the  squash  bugs.  Often  ill 
smelling.     Some  species  rather  large. 

Pentatomida),  the  stinkbugs.  The 
family  includes  both  plant  feeders  and 
predaceous  forms. 

Thyreocoridae,  the  negro  bugs.  Very 
small  forms. 

Pediculidae,  the  sucking  Hce,  parasitic  on  mammals. 
The  number  of  described  species  in  the  Hemiptera  exceeds  20,000. 


Fig.  26.  —  The  giant  water 
bug,  wings  folded.  Sub- 
order Heteroptera.  Origi- 
nal. 


Coleoptera 

The  order  Coleoptera  includes  the  beetles,  readily  distinguished,  as 
a  rule,  by  the  fact  that  the  front  pair  of  wings  are  hardened  and  act 
simply  as  horny  coverings  for  the  larger,  membranous  hind  wings, 
which  are  folded  beneath  the  others  when  at  rest. 

Metamorphosis  is  complete.  There  are  four  distinct  stages,  instead  of 
three,  as  with  all  the  other  orders  mentioned  thus  far.  Eggs  are  laid 
by  the  adults,  and  from  these  hatch  worm^ike  larvae,  commonly  called 


COLEOPTERA 


29 


*'  grubs."     A  resting  stage,  or  pupa,  follows  the  completion  of  growth 
of  the  grub.     Finally  from  the  pupa  emerges  the  adult  beetle. 


Fig.  27.  — A  beetle,  Lachnosterna.     Original. 


The  mouth  parts  are  formed  for  biting.  In  one  subgroup  within 
this  order  the  head  is  prolonged  in  a  sort  of  snout.  This  is  not  a 
sucking  organ,  but  bears  at  its 
end  true  jaws,  adapted  for  biting 
and  chewing.  The  larvai  or 
"  grubs "  of  the  snout  beetles 
have  no  legs. 

The  antenna)  are  of  many  dis- 
tinct types,  ranging  from  simple 
filiform  or  moniliform  shapes  to 
complex  types  that  can  only  be 
classed  as  "  irregular."  Some  of 
the  subgroups  are  commonly  des- 
ignated according  to  the  kind  of 

antenna;  as,  for  example,  the  Clavicorns,  the    Lamellicorns,  or   the 
Serricorns. 

Something  like  20,000  species  have  been  described. 


Fig.    28.  —  A  nout    beetle,  Rhynchites. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 


30 


HOW  INSECTS   ARE    CLASSIFIED 


Larvae  and  adults  feed  on  decaying 
Both  larvae  and  adults  predaceous. 


There  are  many  families,  in  practically  all  of  which  are  to  be  found 
species  of  importance.     A  few  of  the  typical  families  are  the  following : 

Carabidse,  the  ground  beetles.  Active  insects  both  as  larvae  and  as 
adults,  and  usually  predaceous. 

Silphidae,  the  carrion  beetles, 
animal  matter. 

Coccinellidae,  the  lady  beetles. 
One  of  the  most  beneficial  families. 

Elateridae,  the  click  beetles.     Parents  of  the  wireworms. 

Buprestidae,  the  adults  of  the  "  flat-headed  borers." 

Scarabffiidae.  Large  beetles,  well  illustrated  in  the  "  June  bug." 
The  larvae  of  some  feed  on  decaying  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  while 
others  are  highly  injurious. 

Cerambycidae,  the  parents  of  the  "  round-headed  borers." 

Chrysomelidse.  Typical  leaf  eaters.  Examples  are  the  potato  beetle, 
asparagus  beetle,  and  many  others. 

Meloidae,  the  bUster  beetles. 

Curculionidffi,    the   curcuhos.     Snout   beetles.     The    larvae   legless 

grubs. 

Siphonaptera 

The  Siphonaptera  in- 
clude the  fleas.  The  order 
is  a  small  one,  but  is  in- 
teresting because  of  the 
adaptations  that  it  exhibits 
for  parasitic  or  predaceous 
existence. 

Metamorphosis  is  com- 
plete. From  the  egg 
hatches  a  legless  larva,  slen- 
der and  wormlike,  which 
later  transforms  to  a  pupa, 
and  from  this  in  turn 
emerges  the  adult,  ready  to 
Fig.  29.  — Adult  flea.     Enlarged.     Original.          begin  the  life  round  again. 


SIPHONAPTERA    AND   DIPTERA 


31 


The  adults  are  practically  wingless,  though  small,  scalelike  projec- 
tions from  the  top  of  the  thorax  show  where  the  wings  should  be,  and 
perhaps  once  were.  The  body  is  flattened  laterally,  thus  enabhng  the 
insect  to  slip  around  easily  among  the  hairs  of  its  host.  While  the  sur- 
face of  the  body  is  quite  smooth  and  hard,  it  is  provided  with  regular 
rows  of  stiff  bristles,  pointing  backward,  which  help  to  force  the  insect 
in  the  direction  in  which  it  wishes  to  go,  and  likewise  help  it  to  escape 
from  the  fingers  of  its  captor.  A  further  evidence  of  its  parasitic  life 
is  seen  in  the  entire  absence  of  compound  eyes.  The  mouth  parts  are 
fitted  for  sucking. 

Diptera 

The  insects  falling  within  this  order  are  easily  recognized  from  the 
fact  that  they  have  only  a  single  pair  of  membranous  wings.     The 
order  includes  the  groups  that  we  speak 
of  as  flies,   mosquitoes,  midges,   and 
gnats. 

Metamorphosis  is  complete.  The 
larva  is  commonly  called  a  maggot, 
and  is  without  feet.  In  most  species 
it  has  no  distinct  head.  In  many  sub- 
groups within  this  order  the  pupa  or 
resting  stage  preceding  the  adult  is 
peculiar  in  that  it  is  inclosed  within 
the  hardened  and  shortened  skin  of 
the  larva. 

The  single  pair  of  wings  borne  by 
the  adult  are  on  the  middle  segment 
of  the  thorax.  On  the  hind  segment 
are  a  pair  of  small  knobs,  represent- 
ing the  second  pair  of  wings  found  in 
other  insects. 

The  mouth  parts  are  primarily  of  the  sucking  type,  but  often  are 
complex,  and  frequently  are  modified  so  that  certain  of  the  parts  are 
fitted  for  piercing  or  for  rasping.  Thus,  in  the  horseflies  there  are 
sharp  lancets  in  addition  to  the  sucking  tube,  the  former  penetrating 


Fig.  30.  —  Adult  fly,  Tabanus. 
Enlarged  to  twice  natural  size. 
Original. 


32 


HOW  INSECTS   ABE    CLASSIFIED 


the  tissues  and  assisting  in  bringing  on  a  generous  flow  of  blood,  which 
the  latter  conveys  to  the  insect's  pharynx.  In  the  female  mosquito 
similar  structures  are  found,  sharp  stylets  penetrating  the  flesh  and  the 
pharynx  pumping  the  blood  up  through  a  sucking  tube. 

The  antennae  are  of  various  shapes,  from  the  elaborately  feathered 
structures  of  the  male  mosquito  to  the  short,  peculiar  form,  orna- 
mented with  a  prominent  bristle,   found  in  manj^  of  the  so-called 
''flies." 
Classification  within  the  order  is  complex,  and  is  based  partly  on  the 

manner  in  which  the  pupal 
skin  is  ruptured  when  the 
adult  emerges,  partly  on 
the  tj^pe  of  antenna,  partly 
on  the  arrangement  of  the 
veins  in  the  wings,  as  well 
as  other  structural  pecul- 
iarities. 

More  than  40,000  species 
have  been  described. 

The  number  of  families 
is  very  large,  but  among 
the  more  important  groups 
may  be  mentioned  the 
following : 

Culicidae,    the    mosqui- 
toes.    A  nuisance  to  man 
and  domestic  animals,  and  in  some  cases  carriers  of  disease.     Larvae 
aquatic,  as  a  rule. 

Chironomidse,  the  midges  (but  not  the  so-called  midges  attacking 
wheat,  clover,  and  the  like).     Larvae  often  aquatic. 

Cecidomyiidae,  the  gall  midges.     Many  injurious  species,  some  of 
prime  importance,  as  the  Hessian  fly. 

Simulidae,  the  black  flies.     Attack  man  and  domestic  animals. 

Tabanidae,  the  horseflies. 

Asihdae,  the  robber  flies.     Predaceous  on  other  insects. 


Fig.  31.  —  Adult  mosquito.     Enlarged  and 
natural  size.     Original. 


LEPIDOPTERA 


33 


Syrphidae,  the  syrphus  flies.  The  larvse  of  some  species  are  pre- 
daceous  on  noxious  insects. 

(Estridae,  the  botflies.  The  larva  are  notorious  parasites  in  mam- 
mals. 

Muscidse,  a  very  large  family  including  the  common  house  fly. 

Tachinidae,  the  tachina  flies.  The  larvae  often  beneficial  because 
attacking  noxious  insects. 

Anthomyiidae,  including  the  root  maggots. 

A  special  interest  attaches  to  this  order  because  several  of  its  mem- 
bers have  been  directly  connected  with  the  transmission  of  serious 
human  diseases,  as  discussed  in  a  later  chapter. 

Lepidoptera 

The  insects  included  within  this  order  are  the  moths,  the  skippers, 
and  the  butterflies.  The  main  characteristic  of  the  order  is  the  fact 
that  the  wings  and  body  are  covered  with  minute  scales,  which  are 
arranged  in  definite  patterns  and 
often  give  to  the  wings  beautiful 
and  elaborate  colors. 

In  all  Lepidoptera  there  is  com- 
plete metamorphosis.  The  larva 
is  commonly  known  as  a  cater- 
pillar, or  simply  as  a  "  worm," 
the  latter  term  more  frequently 
attached  to  larvae  that  are  not 
covered  with  hairs.  Thus,  on  the 
one  hand,  we  speak  of  the  cabbage 
worm  and  the  canker  worm,  on 
the  other  the  tent  caterpillar  and 
the  yellow-necked  caterpillar.  The 
larvae  have  three  pairs  of  legs 
near  the  front  end  of  the  body,  a  single  pair  of  legs  or  claspers  at 
the  hind  end,  and  usually  two  to  four  pairs  of  fleshy  prolegs  between. 

All  adults  in  the  order  Lepidoptera  have  four  wings,  except  in  cer- 
tain species  where  the  wings  are  entirely  lacking.     The  mouth  parts 


Fig.  32.  —  Scales  from  the  wing  of  a 
butterfly,  Pontia.  Enlarged.  Orig- 
inal. 


34 


HOW  INSECTS   ABE    CLASSIFIED 


Fig.  33. — A  hntterRy,  Argynnis.     Original. 


are  fitted  for  sucking.     The  adults  in  this    group  take  only  liquid 
nourishment,    or   frequently   none   at  all.     The   larvae,  however,  are 

provided  with  well- 
developed  jaws, 
adapted  for  biting 
and  chewing.  It  is 
in  the  larval  stage 
that  the  represent- 
atives of  this  order 
are  injurious.  The 
moth  itself,  or  but- 
terfly, is  harmful 
only  in  the  sense 
that  it  is  the  parent 
of  a  succeeding  de- 
structive stage. 
The  antennae 

are  of  three  general  types,  and  separate  the  order  into  its  sub- 
groups. Butterfhes  have  slender  antennae  composed  of  a  large 
number  of  indistinct  rings  or  segments,  with  an  enlargement  or  club 
at  the  end.  In  the  skippers  the  club  at  the  end  of  the  antenna  is 
somewhat  elongated,  and  is  turned  back  at  the  farther  end  in  a  slender 
hook.  The  antennae  of  moths  are  more  or  less  feathered,  often  elabo- 
rately so.  Butterflies  are  usu- 
ally on  the  wing  in  the  day- 
light hours,  while  moths  have 
a  tendency  to  fly  at  night. 
Butterflies  habitually  rest  with 
their  wings  folded  together  ver- 
ticafly  above  the  body;  skip- 
pers may  hold  the  wings  in  a 

similar  position,  or  may  hold 

,,        «        ,        .  X-     1         J       Fig.  34. — A  skipper,  Atrytone. 

the  front  wmgs  vertical  and 

the  hind  wings  horizontal;    moths  habitually  rest  with  their  wings 

held  horizontal  or  roof  like,   or  curved  around  the  abdomen.     The 


Original. 


LEPIDOPTERA 


35 


bodies  of  butterflies  are  slender ;  those  of  skippers  are  rather  stout ; 
the  bodies  of  moths  are  typically  heavy. 

About  60,000  species  are  known.  In  classification  among 
this  tremendous  number  use  is  made  of  the  markings  on  the  wings,  but 
especially  of  the  veins  in  the  wings. 

The  number  of  families  is  very  large,  and  injurious  species  are  found  in 
a  large  proportion  of  them.  Examples  are  as  follows,  though  this  list 
necessarily  is  brief  and  by  no  means  representative  of  the  entire  order : 


Fig.  35. — A  moth,  Automeris.     Original. 


Cossidse,  the  carpenter  moths.  Larvae  bore  in  the  trunks  or  branches 
of  trees.     Pests  of  shade  trees. 

Pyraustida3.  The  larvae  of  many  species  are  leaf  rollers,  and  are 
serious  pests. 

Graphohthidae.  Adults  small.  The  family  includes  the  codhng 
moth,  the  bud  moth,  and  other  pests. 

Tortricidae.     The  larvae  usually  work  within  webs. 

Tineina,  a  superfamily  of  very  small  moths,  the  larvae  of  which  often 
are  leaf  miners,  but  sometimes  construct  cases  within  which  they  feed, 
as  in  the  case-bearing  clothes  moths. 

Sesiidae,  the  clear-wing  moths.  Larvae  often  borers  and  very  in- 
jurious, as  the  peach-tree  borer,  the  squash  borer,  and  others. 


36 


HOW  INSECTS   ARE    CLASSIFIED 


Notodontidse.  Larvae  large  and  usually  feed  exposed.  Examples 
are  the  yellow-necked  and  the  red-humped  caterpillars. 

Geometridse.     Parents  of  the  "  measuring-worms." 

Noctuida?.  An  immense  family.  The  moths  fly  at  night.  The 
larvae  include  many  of  our  worst  insect  pests,  such  as  the  army  worm, 
cotton  boll-worm,  and  cutworms. 

Lj^mantriidse,  the  tussock  moths. 

Sphingidse,  the  hawk  moths.  Large  insects.  Larvae  conspicuous. 
Example,  the  tomato  worm. 

Saturniidae,  the  silkworm  moths.  Larvae  large  and  armed  with 
tubercles  or  spines. 

Lasiocampidae.  The  larvae  often  construct  large  nests,  as  the  tent 
caterpillar. 

Pieridae.  A  common  family  of  butterflies,  including  the  imported 
cabbage  worm. 

Hymenoptera 

The  order  Hymenoptera  includes  the  bees,  ants,  wasps,  sawflies,  and  a 
host  of  parasitic  species,  many  of  which  are  extremely  minute. 

Metamorphosis  is  complete.  The  larva  is  grublike  or  wormlike. 
Often  the  pupa  is  inclosed  in  a  cocoon. 


Fig.  36.  — A  sawfly.     Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 


HYMENOPTERA 


37 


Fig.  37.  —  The  saws  of  a 
sawfly.  Enlarged  and  nat- 
ural size.     Original. 


Adults  in  this  order  are  characterized  by  the  possession  of  two 
pairs  of  wings,  both  pairs  membranous,  the  front  pair  larger  than 
the  hind  pair.  The  mouth  parts  are  com- 
plex, and  are  adapted  for  biting  and  for 
sucking.  However,  the  structure  of  the 
mouth  parts  is  not  usually  of  direct  eco- 
nomic importance,  since  the  adults  do  not 
habitually  feed  on  or  destroy  that  which  is 
of  value  to  man. 

In  one  subgroup  of  the  Hymenoptera  the 
abdomen  of  the  adult  is  broad  at  the 
point  where  it  joins  the  thorax;  in  other 
words,  the  insects  are  "  broad  waisted." 
This  section  includes  the  Tenthredinidai  or 
sawflies,  a  family  containing  many  injurious 
species.  The  name  sawfly  is  given  to  this 
family  because  the  end  of  the  abdomen  in  the  adult  female  is  provided 
with  genuine  saws,  which  it  uses  in  making  a  place  for  the  deposition 
of  its  eggs.  Sawfly  larvae  strongly  resemble  the  larva?  of  the  Lepi- 
doptera,  but  may  be  distinguished  from  them  by  the  number  of  pro- 
legs  —  the  false  legs  situated  behind  the  three  pairs  of  genuine  legs 
near  the  front  end  of  the  body.     The  larva^  of  sawflies  usually  have 

six  to  eight  pairs  of  these  pro- 
legs,  while  those  of  the  butterflies 
or  moths  have  never  more  than 
five  pairs.  Examples  of  injurious 
sawflies  are  seen  in  the  pear  slug 
and  the  currant  worm. 

A  closely  related  subgroup  of 
the  Hymenoptera  comprises  a 
number  of  families  in  which  the 
female  is  pro^^ded  with  a  boring 
apparatus  at  the  hind  end  of  the 
abdomen.  These  families  include  some  of  our  important  beneficial 
species  living  as  parasites  in  the  bodies  of  other  insects,  the  Ichneu- 


FiG.  .38. — An  ichneumon 
Original. 


Pimpla. 


38 


HOW  INSECTS  ARE   CLASSIFIED 


monidae  Chalcididse,  and  others.     With  these  the  abdomen  is  joined 
to  the  thorax  by  a  narrow  waist. 


Fig. 


Adult  winged  ant.     Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 


Finally  there  are  the  stinging  Hymenoptera,  which  also  are  narrow- 
waisted,  like  the  boring  Hymenoptera.     T3^ical  specimens  are  the 

common  bees,  wasps,  and  ants. 
It  is  within  these  families 
that  we  find  social  develop- 
ment at  its  height.  Few  in 
this  section  are  classed  as  in- 
jurious, the  exceptions  being 
found  principally  among  the 
ants. 

The  stinging   Hymenoptera 
are  divided  into  the  following 
Fig.  40.  —  A  wasp,  Sphecina.     Original.         SUperfamilies  : 


HYMENOPTERA 


39 


Formicina,  the  ants.  Many 
species  with  high  social  develop- 
ment. 

Sphecina,  the  digger  wasps.  Soli- 
tary in  their  habits.  A  large  group, 
including  many  families. 

Vespina,  the  true  wasps.  One 
group  is  soUtary  and  another  social. 

Apina,  the  bees.  Various  habits, 
but  all  collect  pollen  or  honey  to 
feed  their  young. 

The  number  of  described  species  of  Hymenoptera  is  in  excess  of 
30,000. 


Fig.  41. — A  bee,  Bombus.    Original. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
How  Insects  Spread 

The  spread  of  insects  is  brought  about  by  a  great  variety  of  agencies, 
some  of  which  are  within  human  control,  while  others  are  not.  It  is 
the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  point  out  a  few  of  the  former  as  well  as 
the  latter,  and  to  emphasize  the  value  of  taking  precautions  to  prevent 
the  spread  of  noxious  species.  With  many  serious  pests  an  omice  of 
prevention  is  worth  a  good  many  pounds  of  cure. 

Certainly  the  power  of  flight  possessed  by  most  insects  is  normally 
their  principal  means  of  dispersal  to  new  feeding  grounds.  Unfor- 
tunately this  is  a  matter  usually  quite  beyond  human  control.  Never- 
theless, as  will  be  seen  later,  there  are  barriers  even  to  powers  of  flight, 
and  some  of  our  most  injurious  pests,  which  are  capable  also  of  sustained 
flight,  would  never  have  reached  this  country  at  all,  or  the  section  where 
they  are  now  a  menace,  had  it  not  been  for  other  means  of  dispersal 
entirely  within  the  control  of  man. 

Strong  winds,  streams,  ocean  currents  carrying  debris  or  drift 
infested  with  insects,  birds  which  are  known  occasionally  to  bear 
minute  forms  on  their  feet  —  all  these  are  occasional  means  of  the 
dispersal  of  insects  and  their  introduction  into  new  localities. 

But  if  we  were  to  reckon  up  the  hundred  pests  that  are  working 
greatest  havoc  with  our  farms  and  orchards  to-day,  we  should  find  that 
at  least  half  of  them,  if  not  three  fifths,  had  been  introduced,  directly 
or  indirectly,  through  the  agency  of  man  himself. 

The  wa^^s  in  which  this  comes  about  are  many.  When  shrubs  or 
trees  are  imported  from  foreign  countries,  they  are  likely  to  be  infested 
with  pests  new  to  this  continent.  The  insect  thus  imported  is  apt  to 
get  a  foothold  and  to  develop  into  a  pest  of  the  first  magnitude.     It  was 

40 


MEANS    OF   SPREAD  41 

in  this  way  that  the  San  Jose  scale  was  brought  to  the  United  States, 
and  similar  circumstances  made  possible  the  introduction  of  the  brown- 
tail  moth. 

Various  substances  used  as  packing  for  manufactured  products  im- 
ported from  the  far  corners  of  the  world  may  harbor  threatening  insects. 

Fruits,  fruit  products,  or  other  edibles  imported  for  consumption 
in  the  United  States  may,  and  often  do,  introduce  injurious  species. 

Undoubtedly  the  majority  of  the  pests  thus  accidentally  introduced 
fail  to  become  establishes!  and  never  are  heard  from.  But  if  only  an 
occasional  species  gains  a  foothold  and  nuilti})lies,  the  results  are 
sufficiently  disastrous. 

Finally,  it  happens  sometimes  that  living  specimens  are  imported 
for  experiment  or  study,  and  through  accident  are  allowed  to  escape. 
The  best-known  example  of  this  is  found  in  the  gJT^}^  moth,  now  cost, 
ing  New  England  millions  of  dollars  in  attempted  suppression  or  control. 


CHAPTER  IX 

Insects  as  Carriers  of  Disease 

Within  comparatively  recent  years  careful  study  has  been  given 
to  insects  as  carriers  of  human  disease,  with  the  result  that  astounding 
facts  have  been  disclosed.  We  know  to-day  that  several  of  the  serious 
and  fatal  diseases  that  afflict  man,  and  several  others  to  which  domestic 
animals  are  subject,  are  carried  or  transmitted  by  insects ;  and  in  some 
cases  the  disease  is  carried  in  no  other  way.  The  study  of  these  facts 
and  possibilities  constitutes  the  new  Medical  Entomology. 


House  Flies 

Beyond  doubt  the  commonest  and  the  worst  offender  is  the  house 
fly.     Both  observed  facts  and  careful  experiments  have  proved  that 

this  insect  is  instrumental  in 
the  spread  of  typhoid  fever, 
tuberculosis,  and  certain  intes- 
tinal diseases,  and  there  is  every 
probability  that  further  study 
wiU  reveal  others. 

The  habits  of  the  fly  in  its 
choice  of  breeding  places,  its 
irrespressible  tendency  to  enter 
our  houses  and  walk  over  our 
food,  and  the  structure  of  its 
body,  especiafly  its  feet  and  its 
tongue,  form  the  chain  of  circum- 
stances by  which  the  transfer  of  disease  germs  is  brought  about.  The 
same  fly  that  spent  its  larval  life  as  a  maggot  in  filth  or  infected  excre- 

42 


Fig.  42.  —  The  House  Fly,  Musca  domes- 
tica  Linn.     Enlarged.     Original. 


TRANSMISSION    OF   DISEASE 


43 


ment  later  comes  through  our  opened  doors  or  unscreened  windows, 
its  hairy  feet  loaded  with  dangerous  germs,  and  alights  on  the  food  set 
on  our  dinner  table.  Or,  coming  from  the  street,  where  it  has  been 
feeding  on  the  sputum  of  some  unfortunate  victim  of  tuberculosis, 
it  brings  in  the  deadly  bacteria  in  the  ridges  and  hollows  of  its  tongue. 


Mosquitoes 

In  a  wholly  different  manner  the  mosquitoes  of  certain  species  have 
been  proved  to  transmit  malarial  fever.     Indeed  it  is  known  that  this 

disease   never   is   transmitted   in  

any  other  way.     Here,  in  contrast 

to   the   fly  which  simply  carries 

germs  mechanically  on  some  part 

of   its  body,  we   have  an  insect 

that  serves  as  an  intermediary  host 

to  the  organism,  the  latter  going 

through  a  definite  part  of  its  life 

round   within   the   body   of    the 

insect,  the  remainder  within  the 

body    of    man.       The    mosquito 

itself  is  infected  by  sucking  the 

blood  of  a  human  being  suffering 

from  malaria.    The  organism  that 

causes    the    disease,    being    thus 

transferred  to  the  stomach  of  the  insect,  goes  through  certain  changes, 

and  eventually  collects  in  large  numbers  in  the  salivary  gland  of  the 

mosquito.     If,  now,  this  insect  bites  another  person,  the  organisms  are 

transferred  to  the  latter,  and  shortly  develop  in  the  blood,  giving 

rise  to  the  characteristic  chills  and  fever,  recurring  at  regular  intervals, 

according  to  the  particular  type  of  organism  with  which  the  mosquito 

has  been  infected. 

As  a  direct  result  of  this  knowledge  it  has  been  possible  to  bring 
about  phenomenal  results  in  fever-ridden  districts,  by  careful  screening, 
and  by  isolating  fever  patients  so  that  mosquitoes  could  not  get  at 
them  while  they  were  suffering  from  the  disease.     In  places  where  this 


Fig.  43. — A  malarial  mosquito,  An- 
opheles maculipennis  Say.  Enlarged 
and  natural  size.     Original. 


44  INSECTS   AND   DISEASE 

work  has  been  carefully  done  the  death  rate  from  malaria  has  been  re- 
duced to  a  small  fraction  of  that  formerly  prevailing. 

Other  Diseases  Transmitted 

Yellow  fever  is  transmitted  solely  by  certain  species  of  mosquitoes. 
In  Montana  and  Idaho  a  disease  known  as  spotted  fever  is  carried 
by  a  tick.  The  terribly  fatal  bubonic  plague  is  transmitted  largely  by 
fleas.  A  species  of  fly  has  been  found  to  be  the  means  of  spread  of  the 
sleeping  sickness  that  has  been  ravaging  some  sections  of  Africa.  Yet 
this  is  only  a  part  of  the  known  list. 

Among  domestic  animals,  a  striking  example  is  found  in  the  disease 
known  as  Texas  fever,  which  has  caused  tremendous  losses  among 
owners  of  cattle.  The  organism  causing  this  disease  is  carried  by  a 
species  of  tick,  and  infection  invariably  takes  place  only  through  the 
bite  of  this  tick.  In  Asia  and  Africa  other  serious  or  fatal  diseases 
of  domestic  animals  have  been  traced  to  insect  carriers,  and  it  is 
probable  that  similar  discoveries  will  be  made  here. 


CHAPTER  X 

The  Natural  Enemies  of  Insects 

That  insects  have  a  host  of  natural  enemies  which  constantly  prey  on 
them  is  as  certain  as  the  fact  that  insects  exist  at  all.  If  it  were  not  so, 
and  if  our  pests  reached  the  full  limit  of  their  powers  of  increase  un- 
checked, there  would  shortly  be  no  living  plant  left  on  the  face  of  the 
earth,  and  no  trace  of  animal  life.  Insects  possess  preeminently,  the 
ability  to  multiply  rapidly  and  to  spread  widely.  Thus  it  has  been 
computed  that  the  progeny  of  one  plant  louse  in  a  single  season,  if 
allowed  to  multiply  at  the  maximum  rate  and  if  none  suffered  accidental 
death,  would  make  a  mass  of  matter  equal  in  weight  to  that  of  the 
earth. 


Fig.  44.  —  Protective  coloration.     Butterflies 
among  dead  leaves.     Original. 


Fig.  45.  —  Protective  resem- 
blance. Moth  on  the  trunk 
of  a  tree.     Original. 


Birds   and   Other   Animals 

Among  the  higher  animals  that  destroy  noxious  insects  birds  are 
entitled  undoubtedly  to  first  rank.     Few  of  us  appreciate  their  services. 

45 


46 


NATURAL   ENEMIES    OF  INSECTS 


Scores  of  species  depend  largely  on  insects  for  their  food  during  a  part 
of  the  3^ear,  if  not  throughout  all  of  it.  Among  our  best  friends  are 
the  swallows,  chickadees,  cuckoos,  the  kingbird,  catbird,  robin,  blue- 
bird, and  the  woodpeckers ;   but  this  list  is  merely  suggestive. 

Birds  are  peculiarly  fitted  for  dealing  with  outbreaks  of  injurious 
insects.  Possessed  of  the  power  of  flight  they  can  flock  to  places  where 
insect  pests  that  they  enjoy  are  in  abundance.  At  the  same  time 
they  are  not  bound  to  maintain  a  species  at  reasonable  abundance 
in  order  to  protect  their  source  of  food  and  keep  it  from  disappearing 
entirely,  as  is  the  case  with  many  insect  parasites. 

Toads  are  entitled  to  prominent  rank  as  destroyers  of  insects.  The 
number  of  specimens  consumed  by  them  in  a  season  is  enormous.  Other 
animals  that  live  on  insects  to  a  considerable  extent  are  skunks,  moles, 
and  field  mice. 

Efficient  enemies  of  aquatic  insects,  or  of  such  as  spend  part  of  their 
life  beneath  the  water,  are  various  species  of  fishes. 


Predaceous  and  Parasitic  Insects 

The  greatest  inroads  in  the  ranks  of  injurious  insects  are  made  by 
other  members  of  the  same  great  class  itself,  by  the  predaceous  and 
parasitic  insects. 

In  general,  we  speak  of  predaceous  insects  as  those  that  attack 
and  feed  on  other  insects  or  animals  of  various  species,  but  are  not 
dependent  on  a  single  individual 
host  for  their  existence.     Thus 


Fig. 


46.  —  A  predaceous   bug,  Sinea 
diadema  Fab.     Original. 


Fig.  47.  —  Adult  Braconid. 
An  egg  parasite.  Enlarged 
and  natural  size.     Original. 


PREDACEOUS   AND    PARASITIC  INSECTS 


47 


the  dragon  %,  poised  in  air  and 
waiting  to  pounce  on  some  unwary 
gnat  or  fly,  is  predaceous. 

A  parasitic  insect,  on  the  other 
hand,  usually  is  higWy  specialized 
for  existence  on  some  particular  species 
of  host,  and  has  reached  such  depend- 
ence on  its  host  that  if  the  latter 
dies  before  the  parasite  has  completed 


Fig.  48.  —  Larva,  showing 
exit  holes  of  parasites. 
Original. 


Fig.  49. 


Eggs  of   a  parasite  on  a  cut- 
worm.    Original. 


its  life  round,  the  parasite  perishes.  Many  parasitic  insects  live 
within  the  bodies  of  their  hosts.  A  familiar  example  is  found  in  the 
species  that  lays  its  eggs  in  the  body  of  the  tomato  worm,  the 
parasitic  grubs  finally  gnawing  their  waj^  to  the  surface,  where  they 
spin  tiny,  white  cocoons  on  the  bod}^  of  their  host. 

For    most    of    us,    the 
tremendous  work  of  para- 
sitic and  predaceous  spe- 
cies in  destroying  insect 
pests    passes     unnoticed. 
It    is    brought    to    mind 
when  we  see   or   hear  of 
a  bad   outbreak  of  some 
injurious  insect,  and  later 
observe  that  the  threaten- 
ing species  has  suddenly  grown  scarce  —  eometimes  seemingly  disap- 
peared from   the   face  of   the   earth  in   the  very  localities  where  it 
had  been  abundant.     If  we  were  to  follow  up   such  cases  carefully, 
we  should  find,  as  a   rule,  that  as  soon   as  the   threatening  species 


Fiu.  50. 


Cocoons    of    parasites    on 
Original. 


lar\a. 


48 


NATURAL   ENEMIES    OF  INSECTS 


l:)esan  to  grow  cxcessivel}^  nuniorous,  some 
one  of  its  enemies,  stimulated  by  the  abun- 
dance of  food,  increased  so  rapidly  that  with 
the  next  generation  or  the  next  season  the 
injurious  species  was  well-nigh  wiped  out  of 
existence. 

In  truth,  there  is  a  sort  of  natural  balance 
between  the  numbers  of  a  given  species  of 
insect  and  those  of  its  enemies.  If  the  insect 
increases  abnormally,  the  parasites  are  stimu- 
lated to  heavy  increase  and  the  numbers  of 
Fig.  51.  —  Predaceous  the  host  are  rapidly  diminished.  If,  on  the 
beetle,  Calosoma.    Orig-       ,^       ^        ^    .1     ■,       .    ^  1  n       j.i 

.     J  other  hand,  the  host  decreases  abnormally,  the 

parasites  perish  from  lack  of  food,  and  thus, 
freed  temporarily  from  their  attack,  the  host  is  enabled  to  increase 
once  more. 

Consideration  of  the  above  law  hel]3s  greath^  to  explain  the  fact 
that  injurious  species  imported 
from  a  foreign  country  are  so 
often  intolerable  pests.  We 
have  brought  over  the  host  with- 
out its  enemies.  Finding  con- 
ditions here  congenial,  it  multi- 
plies to  excessive  numbers, 
escaping  the  attack  of  the 
parasites  that  would  have  taken 
it  in  hand  in  its  native  home. 

Occasionally,  it  has  been  found 
possible  to  import  artificially 
the  parasites  of  an  introduced 
pest,  and  to  establish  them 
successfully    in     this    country. 

But  the  venture  is  tedious  and 

,.      ,      ,.^      ,,       ^  Fig.  52. — Adult  tachina  fly;  enlarged 

exceedmgly  difficult.     Some  con-  and  natural  size.   The  larva,  are  para- 

dition  of  weather  or  tempera-  sites.    Original. 


VALUE    OF  PARASITES 


49 


ture  is  found  unfavorable  to  an  essential  parasite ;  or  it  is  discovered 
that  in  its  new  home  the  parasite  itself  is  attacked  by  some  enemy 
from  which  it  was  free  in  its  native  land.  Rarely,  however,  the 
experiment  is  successful;  and  the  few  instances  that  do  work 
out   satisfactorily  abundantly  repay  for  the  labor  and  cost  of  all. 

The  most  extensive  attempt  at  the  introduction  of  parasitic  and 
predaceous  enemies  from  abroad  for  the  control  of  a  menacing  pest  is 
that  now  in  progress,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Bureau  of 
Entomolog}^  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, in  the  fight  against  the 
gypsy  moth.  At  least  ten  or 
twelve  species  must  be  col- 
lected, imported,  and  colo- 
nized successfully,  in  order  to 
make  this  work  a  complete 
success ;  but  there  is  excellent 
prospect  of  ultimate  accom- 
plishment ;  and  meanwhile, 
no  other  known  measures 
will  avail  to  limit  the  ravages 
of  the  pest. 

Among  our  valuable  families  of  predaceous  insects  are  the  ground 
beetles,  tiger  beetles,  and  lady-bird  beetles  in  the  order  Coleoptera  ; 
the  assassin  bugs  and  many  aquatic  forms  in  the  order  Hemiptera ;  the 
dragon  flies  constituting  the  order  Odonata ;  and  several  families  in 
the  two-winged  flies  or  Diptera. 

Two  orders  furnish  the  majority  of  our  parasitic  species,  the  Diptera 
and  the  H>Tnenoptera.  The  number  of  parasites  within  these  orders 
is  enormous.  The  principal  families  include  the  Tachina  flies  and  the 
Syrphus  flies  in  the  Diptera,  and  the  Ichneumons,  Braconids,  and 
Chalcids  in  the  Hymenoptera. 


Fig.  53.  —  Eggs  of  C/ir^sopa  sp.    Predaceous 
on  plant  lice.     Enlarged.     Original. 


50 


NATURAL   ENEMIES    OF  INSECTS 


Fungous  and  Bacterial  Diseases  of  Insects 

Fungous  diseases  of  various  kinds  attack  insects,  and  occasionally 
are  responsible  for  their  death  in  large  numbers.     A  famihar  example 

is  seen  at  the  close  of  every 
summer  when  many  of  our 
common  house  flies  may  be 
observed  clinging  to  the  ceil- 
ing, their  abdomens  distended 
and  covered  with  a  fine,  pow- 
dery substance,  while  a  ring 
of  the  same  light  powder  sur- 
rounds the  insect's  body  on 
the  ceiling. 

Nearly  every  season  speci- 
mens of  the  common  tent 
caterpillar  may  be  found  hang- 
ing from  a  leaf  or  twig,  the 
body  misshapen  and  covered 
with  a  powdery  growth.  Mil- 
lions of  brown  tail  caterpillars 
have  been  killed  in  the  New 
England  states  in  the  last 
two  years  by  a  fungous 
disease. 

Attempts  have  been  made 
to  propagate  these  diseases 
artificially.  A  fair  measure 
of  success  has  sometimes  at- 
tended these  efforts,  but  the 
undertaking  is  difficult,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  certain  con- 
appear    to    be    essential    to    the 


Fig.  54.  —  Tent  Caterpillar,  Malacosoma 
americana  Fab.,  killed  by  a  fungous 
disease.     Original. 


ditions   of   weather    and    moisture 
growth  of  the  fungus. 

Caterpillars  of  some  species  are  attacked  also  by  bacteria  of  one  or 


FUNGI   AND    BACTERIA 


51 


more  species.     Thus,  the   g\T3sy  caterpillar  occasionally  dies  off  in 
large  numbers  from  the  effect  of  a  disease  due  to  a  species  of  such 


Fig.  55. — Tent  Caterpillars  killed  by  a  disease  caused  by  a  species  of 
bacteria.     Original. 


organism.     The  same  or  a  similar  disease  attacks  also  the  common 
tent  caterpillar. 


PART  II 

THE  METHODS  OF  INSECT  CONTROL 


CHAPTER  XI 

Farm  Practice  in  Relation  to  Insect  Control 

To  a  considerable  extent,  —  more  than  most  of  us  suspect,  —  the 
depredations  of  injurious  insects  in  our  fields,  orchards,  and  gardens  may- 
be reduced  or  controlled  by  the  farm  practice  followed  on  a  given  place ; 
methods  of  tillage,  crop  rotations,  and  such  matters  as  thoroughness 
in  eradicating  weeds.  More  emphasis  should  be  laid  on  the  fact  that 
all  farm  matters,  including  the  tax  paid  to  insect  pests,  are  largely 
interdependent ;  that  careful  consideration  given  to  the  subject  of  prob- 
able insect  attack  when  planning  the  procedure  for  a  season  or  a 
series  of  seasons  invariably  will  pay,  and  pay  well. 

Crop  Rotation 

Of  these  various  matters,  crop  rotation  is  one  of  the  most  important. 
An  example  will  illustrate  the  point. 

Many  insects  attack  only  one  kind  of  plant ;  say  corn,  for  example, 
or  strawberries,  or  onions.  It  may  always  be  expected  that  a  few  such 
pests  will  find  their  way  to  a  field  that  has  been  planted  to  some  one  of 
these  crops.  If  not  very  abundant,  they  may,  and  probably  will, 
pass  entirely  unnoticed,  and  the  injury  that  they  do  will  be  so  slight 
that  it  may  properly  be  disregarded. 

Now,  many  or  most  of  these  insects  spend  the  winter  close  by  the 
scene  of  their  summer's  feeding  ;  in  the  ground,  under  rubbish,  or 
elsewhere  near  at  hand.  Assume  now  that  this  field  is  planted  to  the 
same  crop  the  succeeding  season.  It  will  start  out  with  an  abundance 
of  insect  enemies,  especially  adapted  to  that  crop.  Instead  of  an 
injury  so  small  that  it  passes  unnoticed  we  may  have  a  disastrous  attack. 

Again  it  is  well  to  avoid  planting  in  the  same  field  in  successive 
seasons  crops  that  are  closely  related  botanically.     Some  of  our  in- 

55 


56  FARM  PRACTICE  IN   RELATION    TO   INSECTS 

jurious  species  attack  not  simply  a  single  variety  of  plant,  but  any  that 
comes  within  the  same  group,  —  for  example,  the  striped  cucumber 
beetle,  which  will  feed  impartially  on  melons,  squashes,  and  cucumbers. 
It  should  be  noted  in  passing  that  the  plan  that  is  good  practice 
from  the  standpoint  of  avoiding  insect  attack  is  likewise  the  procedure 
recognized  as  wisest  in  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  avoiding 
difficulties  on  other  scores. 

Special   Questions  in  Crop  Rotations 

Even  where  unlike  crops  follow  one  another,  it  may  be  wise  to  alter 
the  program  because  of  threatening  insects  left  by  one  crop  for  the  next 
in  the  rotation.  To  illustrate:  when  a  field  has  been  in  sod  for  a 
number  of  years,  it  is  apt  to  harbor  large  numbers  of  wireworms.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  sod  ground  forms  the  natural  breeding  place  of 
this  insect.  The  presence  of  the  wireworms  might  not  be  suspected, 
for  the  grass  roots  on  which  they  feed  are  so  numerous  in  the  soil  that 
no  appreciable  damage  would  be  done  to  the  sod.  But,  break  up  this 
sod,  so  that  the  grass  roots  are  killed,  and  plant  the  field  to  potatoes. 
The  wireworms  will  still  be  there  in  considerable  numbers,  since  they 
normally  spend  two  or  three  years  in  the  larval  stage.  In  the  whole 
field  there  will  be  left  for  them  to  feed  on  nothing  but  the  seed  potatoes 
that  the  owner  has  placed  in  the  ground.  The  result,  if  the  field  was 
well  infested,  will  be  a  wholsesale  destruction  of  the  seed  potatoes, 
and  if  the  owner  replants,  a  repetition  of  the  same  performance.  Had 
the  field  been  planted  to  clover,  or  some  other  similar  crop  in  the 
family  of  legumes,  there  would  have  been  little  or  no  injury. 

Fall  Plowing 

Deep  fall  plowing  is  of  value  in  destroying  many  forms  of  soil- 
inhabiting  insects  —  as  well  as  helping  to  form  a  good  seed  bed  and 
conserve  soil  moisture.  It  is  the  habit  of  several  pests  of  field  and 
garden  crops  to  spend  the  winter  as  pupae  or  adults  in  the  soil,  some- 
times in  little  earthen  cells.  Deep  plowing,  late  in  the  fall,  dis- 
turbs these  and  throws  many  of  them  up  to  the  surface  of  the  ground. 


METHODS    OF  AVOIDING   INJURY  57 

Removing  Crop  Remnants 

Other  insects  have  the  habit  of  hiding  away  under  rubbish  or  crop 
remnants,  such  as  old  potato  vines  or  cabbage  stumps.  It  pays  to 
remove  these  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  off.  The  vegetable  matter  that  they 
represent  need  not  be  lost  if  they  are  piled  up  in  some  odd  corner  and 
allowed  to  rot,  so  as  to  form  humus  which  later  may  be  used  where 
desired. 

Destruction  of  Weeds 

Weeds  are  a  genuine  nuisance  in  the  matter  of  encouraging  noxious 
insects.  It  is  common  for  a  pest  that  feeds  on  a  given  variety  of  plant 
to  make  use  of  some  closely  related  weed  as  its  source  of  food  until 
the  cultivated  crop  is  ready  for  attack.  Some  of  our  garden  insects 
habitually  thus  eke  out  an  existence  in  the  early  spring  or  late  fall. 
In  the  case  of  other  species  it  is  the  habit  of  the  pest  to  go  through 
its  first  generation  of  the  season  on  a  weed,  a  second  generation  coming 
forth  in  irresistible  numbers  as  the  time  arrives  for  the  cultivated 
crop  to  put  in  its  appearance. 

Changing  Time  of  Planting  or  Harvest 

Sometimes,  as  in  the  districts  where  wheat  is  attacked  by  Hessian 
fly,  there  is  advantage  to  be  gained  by  changing  the  time  of  planting. 
With  the  Hessian  fly  it  is  the  aim  of  the  grower  to  defer  the  planting 
of  winter  wheat  for  a  few  days  beyond  the  customary  time,  so  that  the 
plants  will  not  be  large  enough  to  serve  the  purposes  of  the  fly  when 
it  comes  out  later  to  lay  its  eggs.  On  farms  where  this  procedure  is 
followed  carefully  and  accurately,  injury  from  this  pest  has  largely 
been  avoided.  With  other  insects  similar  variations  in  farm  practice 
have  been  worked  out,  wherever  the  habits  of  the  pest  make  such  a 
remedy  possible. 

The  Value  of  Poultry 

Countless  numbers  of  insects  are  picked  up  by  poultry  when  allowed 
to  range  over  considerable  area,  as  is  especially  the  case  where  the 
colony  system   of  housing  is   followed.     Not  only   arc  troublesome 


58  FARM  PRACTICE  IN   RELATION    TO   INSECTS 

pests  thus  destroyed,  but  the  fowls  themselves  obtain  a  fair  share  of 
their  living. 

In  orchards  several  serious  pests  transform  or  hibernate  in  the  soil, 
or  hide  away  under  weeds  and  in  clumps  of  grass.  An  example  is  the 
plum  curculio.  Fowls  will  secure  many  of  these.  In  the  fields 
chickens  will  readily  follow  a  plow,  and  will  find  many  specimens 
that  live  in  the  soil,  such  as  white  grubs  and  wireworms.  Bugs  and 
caterpillars  in  grains  and  grasses  are  destroyed  by  the  wholesale. 

Stimulating  Plant  Growth 

Where  it  is  not  possible  to  prevent  the  attack  of  an  insect,  it  often 
is  feasible  so  to  stimulate  plant  growth  that  the  injury  will  not  prove 
disastrous.  Or,  to  put  it  the  other  way,  crops  that  are  kept  growing 
vigorously  and  are  fed  liberall}'-  are  able  to  withstand  insect  attack,  and 
to  make  a  good  yield  in  spite  of  it.  Since  we  cannot  always  predict 
what  pests  will  be  prevalent  in  a  given  year,  the  wisdom  and  the  ad- 
vantage of  maintaining  vigorous  and  healthy  growth  by  all  practicable 
means  is  apparent.  The  fact  is  again  here  emphasized  that  whatever 
constitutes  good  farm  practice  in  one  regard  is  apt  to  help  out  as  well 
in  others. 


CHAPTER  XII 
Direct  Control  by  Mechanical  Means 

Some  of  the  important  measures  for  the  control  of  injurious  insects 
have  been  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapter.  For  the  most  part  these 
may  be  classed  as  indirect  methods,  since  they  are  intended  largely 
to  prevent  attack  or  injury,  and  are  a  part  of  general  farm  practices 
adopted  for  various  reasons  besides  those  relating  to  insects. 

On  the  other  hand  there  are  measures  that  are  intended  directly  to 
accomplish  the  destruction  of  a  given  pest  or  to  prevent  its  attack,  and 
are  adopted  primarily  for  that  purpose. 

First  among  these  are  a  number  of  simple  methods  that  naturally 
suggest  themselves  in  the  case  of  the  larger  insects  or  those  that  con- 
gregate in  hmited  areas ;  such  as  hand  picking  or  burning.  Measures 
of  this  kind  require  no  special  apparatus,  and  often  are  effective. 
They  may  or  may  not  presuppose  accurate  knowledge  of  the  life  history 
or  habits  of  the  insect  dealt  with ;  but  often  such  knowledge  is  essential 
if  any  real  benefits  are  to  be  secured. 

Examples  of  this  type  are  as  follows  : 

Hand  Picking 

Hand  picking,  jarring,  or  brushing  is  a  common  practice  in  dealing 
with  such  insects  as  the  tomato  worm,  squash  bugs,  and  the  like.  It 
is  worth  knowing  that  a  mass  of  such  insects  collected  in  a  box  or  other 
receptacle  can  easily  be  killed  by  sprinkling  them  with  kerosene. 

Burning 

Burning  is  often  a  prompt  and  effective  remedy,  especially  with  cater- 
pillars that  tend  to  congregate  in  masses.     A  familiar  example  is  seen 

in  the  common  tent  caterpillar. 

59 


60  CONTROL   BY  MECHANICAL    MEANS 

A  simple  torch  is  conveniently  made  by  iy'mg  a  ball  of  raj^s  tightly  on 
the  end  of  a  pole,  and  soaking  with  kerosene,  taking  care  not  to  use  so 
much  of  the  liquid  that  it  runs  down  the  pole. 

Destroying  Egg  Masses 

Destruction  of  egg  masses  is  a  valuable  means  of  control  where  the 
egg  clusters  may  be  found  readily.  Egg  masses  may  be  crushed,  or 
they  may  be  painted  with  some  penetrating  oil,  such  as  creosote. 

Banding 

In  the  control  of  some  caterpillars,  banding  the  trees  is  simple  and 
effective;  but  it  is  absolutely  worthless  against  others.  Its  value 
depends  on  the  characteristics  of  the  insect  to  be  dealt  with.  Thus,  in 
the  case  of  the  cankerworm  infesting  apple  trees,  the  adult  female 
happens  to  be  wingless,  and  must  crawl  up  the  trunk  to  lay  her  eggs. 
A  sticky  band  will  stop  her  from  going  up  to  the  branches,  and  if  the 
band  is  maintained  until  the  young  worms  have  hatched  and  they  in 
turn  are  thus  prevented  from  ascending  the  tree,  no  damage  can  be 
done  to  the  foliage.  But  this  band  would  be  useless  as  a  means  of 
preventing  a  winged  moth,  such  as  the  parent  of  the  tent  caterpillar, 
from  gaining  access  to  the  tree.  Bands  are  of  value  also  where  it  is 
desired  to  prevent  caterpillars  that  have  hatched  on  adjacent  land 
from  migrating  to  trees  that  had  been  protected  or  cared  for. 

An  effective  substance  for  banding  is  the  material  known  as  tree 
tanglefoot.  It  cannot  be  made  at  home,  but  must  be  bought  ready 
prepared.  Printer's  ink  is  dangerous  if  applied  directly  to  trees  with 
tender  bark.  It  may  be  smeared  on  a  sheet  of  paper  tied  around  the 
tree. 

Covering  with  Cloth  or  Screen 

Usually  this  plan  is  made  use  of  to  prevent  injury  to  young  plants, 
until  they  have  grown  large  enough  to  withstand  attack.  Young 
melon  or  squash  plants  are  thus  protected  from  injury  by  the  striped 
cucumber  beetle. 

Where  cloth  is  used,  it  should  be  of  thin  texture.     Common  cheese- 


BANDING — DESTROYING   BORERS     .  61 

cloth  serves  the  purpose  very  well.  Handy  covers  are  made  by  cutting 
a  barrel  hoop  into  two  pieces,  crossing  these  at  a  right  angle,  tacking 
the  ends  to  a  second  hoop,  and  covering  this  frame  with  cloth.  Such 
frames  may  be  packed  away  for  storage,  one  within  another,  taking 
up  little  room. 

Wire  screening  may  be  shaped  into  cones,  which  are  used  in  the  same 
way  as  the  cloth-covered  frames,  and  have  a  similar  advantage  of 
packing  away  in  small  space.  If  galvanized  wire  is  used  and  properly 
stored  when  not  needed,  it  will  not  rust  for  several  years;  but  the  first 
cost  is  rather  heavy  as  compared  with  cheesecloth  frames. 

Destroying  Borers 

Cutting  out  borers  with  a  knife  is  a  remedy  that  seems  drastic,  but 
it  may  be  the  only  means  of  putting  a  stop  to  an  injury  that  would 
otherwise  prove  fatal. 

Frequently,  it  is  possible  to  kill  the  borer  by  probing  the  burrow  with 
a  soft  copper  wire.  If  the  end  of  the  wire  is  nicked,  so  as  to  give  it  a 
few  rough  barbs,  it  will  bring  the  borer  or  a  piece  of  him  out  with  it, 
and  the  operator  may  thus  know  whether  he  has  succeeded  in  reaching 
the  culprit. 

If  cutting  is  necessary,  a  sharp  knife  should  be  used  and  the  course  of 
the  burrow  carefully  followed.  In  this  way  no  more  real  damage  will 
be  done  to  the  tree  than  has  already  been  done  by  the  borer  itself.  It 
is  well  to  paint  the  wound  afterward  with  a  mixture  of  lead  and  linseed 
oil  —  not  with  ready-mixed  paint,  which  is  apt  to  contain  injurious 
oils  added  as  driers. 

Removal  of  Dead  or  Dying  Limbs 

There  are  certain  species  of  small  borers  that  attack  especially  trees 
that  have  been  weakened.  Once  started,  they  continue  to  breed  in 
such  places,  rapidly  killing  the  tree  and  spreading  from  it  to  others  in  the 
neighborhood  that  do  not  happen  to  be  growing  as  vigorously  as  might 
be.  By  prompt  removal  of  the  infested  limbs  or  trees  the  pests  may 
be  eliminated  and  other  trees  near  by  saved  from  attack.  This,  in 
fact,  is  the  only  feasible  means  of  control  in  the  case  of  some  insects, 


62  CONTROL   BY  MECHANICAL   MEANS 

such  as  the  shot-hole  borer.  The  hmbs  or  trees  removed  should  be 
converted  at  once  into  cord  wood  and  burned.  Otherwise,  little  will 
be  gained  by  their  removal. 

Use  of  Traps 

The  kinds  of  traps  are  legion,  and  range  all  the  way  from  chips  or 
stones  placed  in  the  garden  for  squash  bugs  to  hide  under  to  more  or 
less  ingenious  devices  for  capturing  roaches  and  flies.  Many  are 
efficient,  though  it  often  seems  that  new  individuals  make  their  appear- 
ance about  as  fast  as  the  others  are  caught.  At  best  the  total  numbers 
merely  are  reduced. 

A  variation  of  traps  is  seen  in  the  use  of  trap  crops.  By  this  device 
some  kind  of  plant  is  introduced  that  the  pest  is  fond  of,  and  after  the 
insects  have  collected  on  these  plants,  they  are  destroyed  by  poisoning, 
burning,  or  by  spraying  them  wdth  some  oil  or  corrosive,  such  as  pure 
kerosene.  In  other  cases  the  trap  precedes  the  regular  crop,  and 
thus  diverts  attack  from  the  more  valuable  plant.  Thus,  early  kale  is 
sown  in  fields  that  later  are  to  be  set  out  to  cabbages,  in  order  to  attract 
the  overwintering  adults  of  the  harlequin  cabbage  bug. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

Insecticides  —  General  Principles 

The  use  of  chemicals  for  the  destruction  of  insect  pests  had  its  origin 
with  the  advent  of  the  Colorado  potato  beetle  in  our  fields,  about  1870. 

The  beetle  first  came  to  notice  as  a  pest  of  cultivated  potatoes  in  the 
region  between  the  Mississippi  River  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It 
spread  steadily  eastward,  and  in  a  few  years  reached  the  Atlantic 
coast.  It  was  feared  at  the  time  that  the  growing  of  potatoes  was 
doomed,  and  famine  was  freely  predicted. 

Then  came  the  suggestion  that  the  potato  tops  be  dusted  or  sprayed 
with  Paris  green,  so  as  to  poison  the  pest.  The  remedy  was  found  to 
work.  And  thus  was  started  the  modern  practice  of  using  chemicals 
for  the  control  of  injurious  insects. 

To-day  a  large  proportion  of  our  insect  pests,  more  especially  those 
infesting  garden  truck,  fruits,  and  stored  products,  are  controlled  by 
some  form  of  spraying,  or  by  fumigation. 

The  primary  rule  governing  the  appHcation  of  chemicals  for  the  con- 
trol of  an  injurious  insect  is  to  determine  the  feeding  habits.  If  the 
pest  is  one  that  eats  the  foliage  or  tissues^  in  other  words,  if  it  has  bit- 
ing mouth  parts,  it  may  usually  be  killed  by  applying  to  the  plant  some 
form  of  stomach  poison,  such  as  Paris  green  or  lead  arsenate.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  pest  sucks  the  plant  juices  instead  of  chewing  or 
eating  the  tissues,  in  other  words,  if  it  has  sucking  mouth  parts,  it  is 
utterly  useless  to  apply  any  of  the  stomach  poisons  to  the  surface  of 
the  plant,  for  they  will  not  be  taken  up  by  the  insect.  The  sucking 
beak,  thrust  down  through  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  misses  the  poison. 
In  this  class  of  insects,  therefore,  the  chemicals  applied  must  be  such 
as  will  Idll  the  insect  by  contact  with  it,  usually  by  entering  its  breath- 
ing pores. 


64  INSECTICIDES  —  GENERAL   PRINCIPLES 

In  other  words,  poison  sprays  for  leaf-eating  insects  are  applied  to  the 
plant,  to  be  eaten  along  with  part  of  the  plant.  Contact  sprays  are 
applied  to  the  iiisect,  and  only  incidentally  to  the  plant,  since  we  could 
not  hit  the  one  without  hitting  the  other.  With  these,  the  great  aim 
is  to  apply  the  material  so  thoroughly  that  it  will  certainly  come  into 
contact  with  all  the  insects  concerned. 

A  third  method  of  using  chemicals  is  to  take  advantage  of  the  suf- 
focating qualities  of  certain  gases.  Such  materials  are  known  as  Jumi- 
gants.  They  are  of  great  value  in  fighting  pests  living  in  stored  prod- 
ucts, such  as  the  grain  weevils.  It  is  necessary,  in  using  fumigants, 
that  the  materials  treated  shall  be  in  a  closed  receptacle. 

An  anomalous  material,  applied  frequently  in  the  open  air  but  kill- 
ing the  insect  by  the  volatile  oil  that  it  gives  off,  is  the  so-called  Per- 
sian insect  powder. 

Examples  of  insects  that  have  biting  mouth  parts  and  are  killed  by 
poison  sprays  are  the  grasshoppers,  roaches,  beetles,  and  practically  all 
caterpillars. 

Examples  of  insects  that  have  sucking  mouth  parts,  and  cannot  be 
killed  by  poisons,  but  must  be  fought  with  contact  sprays  or  by  some 
other  means,  are  the  thrips,  fleas,  and  the  true  "  bugs  "  —  such  as  the 
squash  bug,  plant  lice,  scale  insects,  and  leaf  hoppers. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

Poison  Insecticides  —  For  Biting  Insects 

Paris    Green 

Paris  green 5  ounces 

Lump  lime 1  pound 

Water 50  gallons 

For  small  quantities  use : 

Paris  green 1  heaping  teaspoonful 

Lump  lime 2  or  3  ounces 

Water 3  gallons 

Paris  green  is  a  bright  green,  heavy,  finely  divided  powder,  and  is 
one  of  the  compounds  of  arsenic.  It  may  be  applied  dry,  but  is  much 
better  used  in  water  or  other  liquid  as  a  spray.  It  is  a  violent  poison. 
The  present  standard  calls  for  at  least  50  per  cent  arsenious  oxid,  and 
not  over  3^  per  cent  soluble  arsenic. 

If  applied  dry,  mix  with  three  or  four  times  the  same  weight  of  flour 
or  fine,  air-slaked  lime,  preferably  the  latter.  Dust  lightly  on  the 
plants.  Be  careful  not  to  put  on  too  much,  or  there  will  be  danger  of 
burning  the  foliage  because  of  the  "  free  "  or  soluble  arsenic  apt  to  be 
found  in  the  material.  A  good  way  is  to  mix  the  poison  and  the  lime 
together,  thoroughly,  place  in  a  muslin  bag  and  shake  gently  over  the 
plants.  If  this  is  done  when  the  dew  is  on,  or  just  after  a  shower,  the 
material  will  stick  better  to  the  foliage. 

If  to  be  used  as  a  spray,  Paris  green  may  be  mixed  with  water  or  with 
Bordeaux  mixture.  In  either  case,  the  amount  to  use  is  from  4  to  5 
ounces  of  the  Paris  green  to  50  gallons  of  the  liquid.  If  water 
is  used,  add  about  1  pound  of  fresh  lump  lime  to  each  50  gal- 
lons of  water.  This  is  done  to  neutralize  any  soluble  arsenic  present 
and  thus  avoid  injuring  the  foliage. 
F  65 


66  POISONS  —  FOR   BITING   INSECTS 

Resin  soap  is  sometimes  added  to  a  solution  of  Paris  green  and  water, 
in  order  to  make  the  material  stick  to  smooth  leaves.  It  may  be 
bought  in  stores,  and  should  be  used  at  the  rate  of  3  pounds  to  50 
gallons. 

Resin-lime  mixture,  especially  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  a  ^'  sticker," 
is  made  by  heating  in  an  iron  kettle  1  gallon  of  water,  1  pint  of  fish  oil 
or  other  animal  oil,  and  5  pounds  of  resin.  Then  add  lye  solution, 
prepared  by  dissolving  one  can  of  lye  according  to  the  directions  on 
the  can.  After  thorough  stirring,  add  hot  water  to  make  5  gallons,  and 
boil  two  hours,  adding  water  to  make  up  that  lost  by  boiling.  The  re- 
sulting liquid  is  light  brown  and  clear  and  will  unite  smoothly  with 
cold  water.  For  use  take  3  gallons  to  50  gallons  of  water,  then  add  3 
gallons  of  thick  whitewash,  and  finally  add  the  Paris  green. 

Advantages  of  Paris  green  are  its  cheapness,  its  quick  action  in  kill- 
ing insects,  and  the  fact  that  it  may  readily  be  obtained  in  most  stores. 
Disadvantages  are  its  Hability  to  adulteration,  the  fact  that  it  settles 
quickly  in  the  spray  barrel,  that  it  sometimes  burns  the  foliage,  and 
that  it  is  rather  easily  washed  off  by  rains.  The  last-named  fact  is  an 
advantage,  rather  than  a  disadvantage,  if  it  is  desired  to  spray  plants 
that  will  soon  be  ready  for  use,  and  will  therefore  need  to  be  washed 
clean. 

Arsenate  of  Lead 

Arsenate  of  lead  (paste) 3  to  10  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

or 
Arsenate  of  lead  (powder)          .        .         .        .       1  to  4  pounds 
Water .         .50  gallons 

For  small  quantities  use: 

Arsenate  of  lead  (paste) 1  tablespoonful 

Water 1  gallon 

Arsenate  of  lead  is  obtainable  in  two  forms :  a  thick,  light-colored 
paste,  or  a  white  powder.  The  former  is  more  commonly  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  put  up.     The  two  do  not  differ  chemically.     Arsenate  of 


ARSENATE    OF  LEAD  67 

lead  is  a  compound  of  arsenic,  but  is  a  less  violent  poison  than  Paris 
green.  The  standard  requirements  for  the  paste  call  for  at  least  12 1 
per  cent  arsenic  oxid,  not  over  f  per  cent  soluble  arsenic,  and  not 
over  50  per  cent  water. 

To  apply  as  a  spray,  the  paste  may  be  mixed  with  water,  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture,  or  with  lime-sulphur  solution.  In  either  case  the 
strength  to  employ  is  from  3  to  10  pounds  of  the  paste  in  50 
gallons  of  water,  or  of  Bordeaux  mixture,  or  of  lime-sulphur  solution. 

If  the  dry  lead  arsenate  is  used  in  making  up  a  spray,  it  is  advan- 
tageous to  employ  the  finely  powdered  form  made  by  the  "  electro  " 
process.  The  proportions  will  be  from  1  to  4  pounds  of  the  powder  to 
50  gallons. 

Either  the  paste  or  the  powder  should  first  be  mixed  with  a  little 
water,  so  as  to  get  it  into  a  thin  paste.  It  is  entirely  unnecessary  to 
add  lime. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  arsenate  of  lead  is  not  as  violent  a  poison  as 
Paris  green,  it  is  necessary  to  use  heavier  doses  for  larger  or  resistant 
insects,  as  indicated  in  the  formula  given  above. 

Powdered  arsenate  of  lead,  applied  dry,  is  developing  a  special  field 
of  usefulness  and  promises  to  become  a  valuable  form  of  insecticide 
application.  Paris  green  has  been  used  in  this  way  for  many  years, 
especiall}^  on  some  truck  and  field  crops  in  the  South ;  but  it  is  rather 
hkely  to  burn  the  foliage  and  is  easily  washed  off  by  rains.  Powdered 
lead  arsenate,  especially  the  amorphous  form  made  by  the  so-called 
''  electro  "  process,  rarely  will  burn  the  plants,  and  if  apphed  after  a 
shower  or  when  the  dew  is  on  the  leaves,  it  sticks  tightly. 

On  most  truck  crops  or  field  crops  it  has  important  advantages  over 
liquid  applications.  The  apparatus  for  applying  it  is  light  and  inex- 
pensive ;  large  areas  can  be  covered  easily  and  rapidly ;  the  need  of 
drawing  a  hea\y  cart  through  the  field  is  obviated ;  and  if  a  good  pow- 
der gun  is  used,  the  material  can  be  forced  in  large  quantities  into  the 
places  where  it  will  do  the  most  good.  It  is  not  suitable  for  orchard 
work  in  general,  or  for  work  of  such  character  as  vineyard  spraying. 

Advantages  of  lead  arsenate  are  the  facts  that  it  will  not  usually 
burn  foliage,  that  it  stays  in  suspension  in   the  spray  mixture  fairly 


68  POISONS  —  FOR   BITING   INSECTS 

well  if  moderately  agitated,  and  that  it  is  not  easily  washed  off  the  leaf 
surface.  Disadvantages  are  its  larger  cost  and  the  fact  that  it  does  not 
so  quickly  kill  insects  as  does  Paris  green. 

Hellebore 

Hellebore 1  ounce 

Water 1  gallon 

or 

Hellebore 1  part 

Flour 3  parts 

Hellebore  is  a  white  powder,  consisting  of  the  finely  ground  roots  of 
the  plant  known  as  white  hellebore  {veratrum  album).  It  is  of  little 
value  unless  it  is  fresh,  or  has  been  kept  in  a  tightly  closed  vessel.  It 
is  poisonous  to  the  larger  animals  when  taken  in  sufficient  quantity. 

It  may  be  used  dry  or  as  a  spray.  If  it  is  to  be  used  dry,  mix  it  with 
flour  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  of  the  powder  to  three  pounds  of  flour, 
and  let  the  material  stand  over  night  in  a  closed  vessel.  It  may  then 
be  dusted  on  the  plants  in  any  convenient  manner.  There  is  no  dan- 
ger of  burning  the  foliage.  If  to  be  used  as  a  spray,  steep  one  ounce 
of  the  powder  in  one  gallon  of  water. 

Hellebore  has  the  advantage  that  it  loses  its  poisonous  properties 
after  exposure  to  the  air  for  three  or  four  days,  and  therefore  may  be 
applied  with  safety  to  ripening  fruits ;  for  example,  currants  that  are 
about  ready  to  use. 

Poison  Bran  Mash 

Bran 25  pounds 

Paris  green ^  pound 

Cheap  molasses 1  quart 

Water  as  needed  to  moisten. 

For  small  quantities  use : 

Bran 1  quart 

Paris  green 1  teaspoonful 

Cheap  molasses        .         .         .  .1  tablespoonful 

Water  as  needed  to  moisten. 


POISON  BRAN  MASH  69 

Poison  bran  mash  is  a  mixture  of  Paris  green,  bran,  and  sweetened 
water,  and  is  used  particularly  for  cutworms. 

Mix,  dry,  |  pound  of  Paris  green  and  25  pounds  of  bran.  Mid- 
dlings or  meal  may  be  used  instead  of  bran,  but  the  latter  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. Prepare  some  sweetened  water,  by  mixing  1  quart  of  cheap 
molasses  and  2  gallons  of  water.  Moisten  the  poisoned  bran  with 
this  sweetened  water,  using  additional  water  if  necessary  so  as  to  get  the 
bran  thoroughly  moist  throughout,  but  not  so  wet  as  to  be  sloppy. 
The  poison  mash  thus  obtained  is  scattered  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 


CHAPTER  XV 
Contact  Insecticides  —  For  Sucking  Insects 

Lime-sulphur  Solution 

Lime  sulphur  is  a  chemical  combination  of  lime  and  sulphur,  and 
kills  insects  by  its  caustic  properties.  At  the  same  time  it  has  con- 
siderable value  as  a  fungicide,  for  the  control  of  such  plant  diseases  as 
apple  scab. 

The  material  is  used  both  as  a  winter  spray,  when  the  trees  are  dor- 
mant, and  as  a  summer  spray,  the  latter  for  fungus  diseases ;  but  the 
solution  for  summer  use  is  much  weaker.  Material  of  the  proper 
strength  for  winter  use  must  never  be  sprayed  on  trees  in  leaf  as  it 
will  burn  the  foliage. 

The  best  time  to  apply  the  winter  strength  of  lime-sulphur  solution 
is  in  the  early  spring,  just  before  the  buds  swell.  For  San  Jose  scale 
and  for  leaf  blister  mite,  two  insects  for  which  this  material  is  especially 
useful,  this  is  the  most  effective  season.  It  may  be  applied  in  the  fall, 
however,  at  any  time  after  the  leaves  drop. 

There  are  three  ways  of  preparing  the  winter  wash  of  lime  sulphur : 
by  diluting  the  commercial  concentrated  solution  now  on  sale  in  stores 
to  the  required  strength;  by  making  a  concentrated  solution  at  home, 
and  properly  diluting  when  needed ;  and  by  making  at  home  a  solution 
which  w^hen  finished  is  ready  at  once  for  use.  These  will  be  described 
in  order. 

Commercial  Lime  Sulphur 

Commercial  concentrated  lime  sulphur  is  a  clear,  reddish  brown  liq- 
uid. It  has  been  placed  on  the  market  by  a  number  of  manufacturers, 
and  is  obtainable  practically  everywhere. 

For  use,  this  material  simply  is  diluted  with  water.  The  amount  of 
water  to  be  added  always  is  indicated  on  the  container  in  which  the 
hquid  comes.     But  if  it  is  desired  to  test  the  strength,  this  can  be  done 

70 


CONCENTRATED   LIME   SULPHUR  71 

with  a  hydrometer,  which  will  indicate  the  specific  gravity.  Procure 
a  hydrometer  marked  according  to  the  Baume  scale,  and  dilute  accord- 
ing to  the  table  given  below  in  the  directions  for  diluting  home-made 
concentrated  lime  sulphur,  remembering  that  this  is  for  use  on  dormant 
trees  only. 

Since  this  spray  material  is  quite  clear,  it  shows  but  little  on  the 
trees.  Some  operators,  therefore,  are  following  the  practice  of  adding 
lime  to  the  material  after  it  is  diluted  ready  for  the  spray  tank,  in  order 
to  make  the  spray  show  up.  Probably  there  is  no  advantage  gained 
in  efficiency,  but  one  can  tell  whether  the  tree  is  thoroughly  coated. 
The  lime  must  be  added  after  the  material  is  diluted.  Either  lump 
lime  or  air-slaked  lime,  at  the  rate  of  6  or  8  pounds  to  50  gallons 
of  diluted  spray,  may  be  employed.  It  will  require  about  ten  minutes 
for  the  lump  lime  to  slake.  Care  should  be  taken  to  arrange  matters 
so  that  the  addition  of  lime  will  take  place  before  the  final  straining. 

Home-made  Concentrated  Lime  Sulphur 

Lump  lime 50  pounds 

Sulphur 100  pounds 

Water  (hot) 70  gallons 

Dilute  as  directed. 

If  suitable  appliances  are  at  hand,  it  is  feasible  to  make  up  con- 
centrated lime  sulphur  at  home,  which  can  be  diluted  for  use  when 
needed.  It  is  absolutely  necessary,  however,  to  keep  the  finished  prod- 
uct sealed  up  away  from  contact  with  air,  and  it  is  essential  that  the 
purity  of  the  materials  used  be  guaranteed.  In  most  cases,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  commercial  concentrate  is  safer. 

To  prepare  the  concentrate,  have  ready  two  boilers,  one  of  which 
must  be  of  100  gallons  capacity  and  is  used  for  boiling  the  materials, 
while  the  other  serves  to  keep  ready  a  supply  of  boiling  water  to  re- 
plenish the  material  as  it  boils  down.  It  is  advisable  to  have  a  measur- 
ing stick,  so  that  the  amount  of  liquid  may  be  ascertained  from  time  to 
time,  and  hot  water  added  when  needed.  It  is  much  better  if  the  cook- 
ing can  be  done  by  steam,  in  a  closed  vessel ;  but  direct  fire  will  do. 


72  INSECTICIDES  FOR   SUCKING  INSECTS 

Place  in  the  main  boiler  50  pounds  of  stone  lime.  Add  20  gallons 
of  hot  water.  While  the  lime  is  slaking  add  100  pounds  of  sulphur. 
Stir  the  mixture  thoroughly  and  constantly,  adding  more  water  from 
time  to  time.  When  the  lime  is  slaked,  add  hot  water  to  make  70 
gallons.  Boil  this  slowly  for  one  half  to  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  or 
until  all  of  the  sulphur  and  lime  are  dissolved.  Dip  out  small  quanti- 
ties and  test  from  time  to  time.  As  the  material  boils  away,  add  hot 
water  to  keep  the  volume  up  to  70  gallons.  When  the  materials  are 
all  dissolved,  pour  out  into  barrels,  straining  carefully,  and  allow  to 
cool.     At  once  close  up  as  nearly  air  tight  as  possible. 

To  dilute  for  use  as  a  winter  spray,  take  1  gallon  of  the  concentrate 
to  5  gallons  of  water.  Or,  better,  have  a  Baume  hydrometer,  test 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  concentrate,  and  dilute  with  water  according 
to  the  following  table : 

Reading  on  Hydrometer  in  Degrees  Number  of  Gallons  of  Water  to 

Baume  One  Gallon  of  the  Concentrate 

35  9 

34  8f 

33  8i 

32  8 

31  7^ 

30  7i 

29  6f 

28  6i 

27  6 

26  5f 

25  5i 

24  5 


23  4i 

22  4i 

21  3f 

20  3i 

19  3i 


18  3 

17  2f 

16  2i 

15  2i 

14  2 

The  above  dilutions  are  for  winter  strength  (the  material  commonly 
used  for  San  Jose  scale  and  leaf  blister  mite). 


KEROSENE  EMULSION  73 

Regular  Home-made  Lime-sulphur  Wash 

Lump  lime 20  pounds 

Sulphur 15  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

The  material  here  described,  when  finished,  is  of  the  proper  strength 
for  use  as  a  winter  spray,  without  further  dilution.  It  contains  much 
sediment,  and  must  always  be  carefully  strained  before  use,  or  it  will 
clog  the  nozzles  intolerably.  It  is  the  standard  formula  with  many 
fruit  growers,  and  is  considered  to  be  especially  effective  against  San 
Jose  scale. 

It  is  easier  to  prepare  it  if  facilities  are  at  hand  for  cooking  by  steam  ; 
but  the  use  of  large  iron  kettles  is  permissible,  provided  the  material 
is  stirred  constantly  and  vigorously  during  the  entire  time  it  is  cooking. 
Place  in  the  boiler  20  pounds  of  stone  lime.  Add  a  few  gallons  of 
hot  water  to  start  the  lime  to  slaking,  and  then  gradually  add  15  pounds 
of  flowers  of  sulphur,  stirring  constantly.  Add  12  gallons  of  hot  water, 
and  boil  hard  for  an  hour.  Dilute  with  more  hot  water  until  there  are 
50  gallons  of  the  mixture.  Strain  carefully,  using  preferably  a  brass 
wire  strainer  with  twenty  meshes  to  the  inch.  Apply  the  solution 
while  still  hot. 

Kerosene  Emulsion 

Hard  soap h  pound 

Hot  water  (soft) 1  gallon 

Kerosene  (coal  oil) 2  gallons 

Dilute  as  directed. 

Kerosene  emulsion  is  a  valuable  insecticide,  especially  for  destrojang 
hibernating  insects  in  rubbish,  and,  when  further  diluted,  for  killing 
plant  lice,  and  other  similar  insects.  The  ingredients  are  kerosene 
(coal  oil),  soap,  and  water.  By  means  of  the  soap  the  oil  is  broken  up 
into  extremely  fine  particles,  or,  in  other  words,  is  ''  emulsified,"  so 
that  in  effect  it  may  be  applied  greatly  diluted,  and  its  killing  power  on 
insects  secured  without  injuring  plant  tissues. 

To  prepare,  shave  up  ^  pound  of  laundry  soap  in  1  gallon  of  soft 


74  INSECTICIDES  FOR   SUCKING   INSECTS 

water.  Have  the  water  boiling  hot.  As  soon  as  the  soap  is  all  dis- 
solved, remove  the  solution  from  the  fire  and  add  2  gallons  of  kero- 
sene. At  once  agitate  the  material  violently.  This  is  best  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  a  bucket  pump,  turning  the  nozzle  back  into  the 
bucket,  so  that  the  material  is  constantly  passed  through  the  pump. 
In  a  few  minutes  a  smooth,  creamy  emulsion  is  formed,  without  any 
free  oil.  This  will  become  thicker  as  it  cools,  but  if  it  is  properly  made, 
no  oil  will  separate  out.  This  is  the  stock  material,  and  will  keep  well, 
if  sealed  from  air. 

For  use  on  trees  or  shrubs  that  are  dormant  it  is  customary  to  dilute 
the  stock  emulsion  with  5  to  7  parts  of  water.  On  trees  or  plants  in 
leaf  dilute  with  10  to  15  parts  of  water,  depending  on  the  type  of  in- 
sect and  the  kind  of  fohage.  Soft-bodied  insects  such  as  plant  lice  are 
easily  killed  by  a  dilution  containing  only  5  or  6  per  cent  of  oil. 

To  get  exact  dilutions  use  the  following  table : 
For  4%  strength  add  15f  gallons  of  water  to  1  gallon  of  stock  solution- 
For  5%  strength  add  12^  gallons  of  water  to  1  gallon  of  stock  solution. 
For  7%  strength  add  8|  gallons  of  water  to  1  gallon  of  stock  solution. 
For  10%  strength  add  5f  gallons  of  water  to  1  gallon  of  stock  solution. 
For  12%  strength  add  4|  gallons  of  water  to  1  gallon  of  stock  solution. 
For  15%  strength  add  3|  gallons  of  water  to  1  gallon  of  stock  solution. 
For  18%  strength  add  2f  gallons  of  water  to  1  gallon  of  stock  solution. 
For  20%  strength  add  2f  gallons  of  water  to  1  gallon  of  stock  solution. 
For  25%  strength  add    If  gallons  of  water  to  1  gallon  of  stock  solution. 

Oil  sprays  are  best  applied  on  a  sunny  day  when  the  wind  is  blowing, 
since  surplus  oil  will  then  evaporate  more  quickly  and  there  will  be  less 
danger  of  injuring  the  plant. 

Crude  oils  are  emulsified  in  the  same  way  as  kerosene.  For  certain 
insects,  as  indicated  later,  this  spray  is  effective  and  desirable. 

Linseed  Oil  Emulsion 

Hard  soap 1  pound 

Hot  water  (soft) 1  gallon 

Linseed  oil  (raw) 2  gallons 

Dilute  as  directed. 


TOBACCO   EXTRACT  75 

The  manner  of  making  linseed  oil  emulsion  is  similar  to  that  of 
making  kerosene  emulsion.  The  material  has  a  special  use  in  fight- 
ing oyster  shell  scale. 

To  make  the  stock  emulsion  take  1  pound  of  soap,  shave  up  fine, 
and  dissolve  in  1  gallon  of  boiling  soft  water.  When  the  soap  is 
all  dissolved,  remove  the  solution  from  the  fire  and  add  at  once  2 
gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil.  Churn  the  mixture  violently  by  pumping 
it  back  on  itself  with  a  bucket  pump.  After  a  few  minutes,  a  yellowish, 
smooth,  creamy  emulsion  will  be  formed.  No  oil  should  separate  out, 
if  the  stock  is  properly  prepared. 

To  prepare  for  use,  take  1  gallon  of  the  stock  and  dilute  with 
9  gallons  of  soft  water.  This  is  for  use  on  trees  not  yet  in  leaf. 
For  oyster  shell  scale  it  is  best  applied  just  before  the  buds  swell  in  the 
spring. 

Commercial  Tobacco  Extract 

Highly  concentrated  extracts  of  tobacco  are  now  on  the  market, 
and  constitute  a  valuable  class  of  contact  insecticides.  They  are 
dark-colored  liquids,  and  are  prepared  for  use  by  diluting  with  water, 
according  to  the  degree  of  concentration  of  the  brand  purchased  and 
the  kind  of  insect  concerned.  It  is  advantageous  to  add  soap  to  the 
solution,  in  order  to  make  it  spread  more  readily  and  prevent  it  from 
collecting  in  globules.  Use  1  pound  of  soap  to  50  gallons  of  the 
diluted  spray. 

Rather  strong  dilutions  of  commercial  tobacco  extract  have  been 
found  of  possible  value  as  winter  sprays  to  kill  the  overwintering  eggs 
of  certain  plant  lice  on  the  bark  or  twigs  of  dormant  trees. 

Weaker  dilutions  are  standard  remedies  for  fighting  various  soft- 
bodied  sucking  insects,  such  as  plant  lice,  thrips,  and  the  like.  These 
dilutions  are  applied  with  perfect  safety  to  trees  in  leaf. 

Similar  dilutions  are  used  as  dips  for  sheep  or  other  domestic  ani- 
mals, to  kill  mites  and  lice. 

"  Black  Leaf  40,"  containing  40  per  cent  nicotine  sulphate,  is  used 
for  winter  spraying,  as  noted  above,  at  dilutions  ranging  from  1  part 
to  300  of  water  down  to  1  part  to  600.     For  use  in  summer  the  dilu- 


76  INSECTICIDES  FOR   SUCKING  INSECTS 

tions  range  from  1  part  to  500  in  the  case  of  resistant  insects  down 
to  1  part  to  1000  in  the  case  of  tender  plant  Hce.  The  dilutions  for 
killing  lice  and  mites  on  animals  are  similar  to  the  last  named.  The 
strength  of  1  to  500  should  be  used  only  as  a  wash  and  not  as  a  dip, 
when  treating  pests  on  animals. 

''  Sulphate  of  Nicotine  "  is  a  preparation  of  similar  strength,  and 
the  dilutions  are  the  same. 

Liquid  "  Nico-Fume  "  contains  40  per  cent  free  nicotine,  but  the 
dilutions  and  manner  of  use  are  similar  to  the  above. 

"  Black  Leaf  Extract  "  contains  a  much  lower  percentage  of  nico- 
tine, and  less  water  is  added  to  it  than  to  the  others  named. 

Home-made  Tobacco  Extract 

If  tobacco  stems  or  tobacco  dust  are  available,  an  extract  may  be 
made  at  home.  To  prepare,  pack  the  stems  in  a  pail  or  kettle  and 
cover  with  water.  Allow  to  stand  over  night.  Or,  boil  1  pound  of 
dust  or  stems  in  1  gallon  of  water.  An  hour's  boiling  is  sufficient. 
Dilute  the  extract  with  1  to  2  parts  of  water.  This  material 
may  safely  be  applied  to  plants  in  leaf  and  is  effective  against  plant 
lice.  Add  soap  at  the  rate  of  1  pound  to  50  gallons  of  spray.  It  is 
not  advisable  to  employ  this  as  a  winter  spray  to  kill  the  eggs  of  plant 
lice  because  the  percentage  of  nicotine  present  may  not  be  sufficient. 

Insect  Powder 

Insect  powder 1  ounce 

Water 2  gallons 

This  is  the  material  variously  known  as  pyrethrum,  buhach,  or 
Persian  insect  powder.  It  consists  of  the  finely  ground  flower  buds 
of  a  plant.  The  active  principle  is  volatile ;  hence  the  material  rapidly 
loses  its  strength  on  exposure  to  air.  It  must  be  fresh,  or  must  have 
been  kept  in  a  closed  receptacle,  to  be  effective. 

Commonly  it  is  used  dry.  Small  powder  guns  are  obtainable  for 
applying  it. 

To  use  it  as  a  spray,  mix  1  ounce  in  2  gallons  of  water.     If  it  is 


SOAP   SOLUTION  77 

desired  to  use  it  in  larger  quantities,  a  convenient  method  is  to  steep 
1  pound  in  1  gallon  of  alcohol,  then  dilute  with  40  gallons  of  water. 
This  material  is  not  poisonous  to  man  or  the  higher  animals. 

Soap  Solution 

Hard  soap 1  pound 

Water 5  gallons 

A  simple  solution  of  soap  and  water  is  effective  against  plant  hce 
and  similar  sucking  insects,  and  is  especially  useful  for  treating  insects 
infesting  house  plants,  where  it  is  not  desirable  to  use  other  and  less 
pleasant  materials. 

Ordinary  laundry  soap  may  be  used.  Dissolve  1  pound  of  soap 
in  5  gallons  of  water.     This  solution  will  not  injure  plants  in  leaf. 

Whale-oil  soap  may  be  used  instead  of  laundry  soap.  The  potash 
soap  is  best.  It  should  contain  not  over  30  per  cent  water.  One 
pound  in  4  or  5  gallons  of  water  is  the  proper  strength  for  plants 
in  leaf. 

A  solution  of  whale-oil  soap  and  water  is  sometimes  used  for  San 
Jose  scale,  applying  it  to  trees  in  winter,  while  they  are  dormant. 
For  such  use,  take  2  pounds  of  the  soap  to  1  gallon  of  hot  water. 
This  material  is  not  as  effective  against  scale  as  lime-sulphur  solution, 
and  the  cost  is  greater. 


Carbolic  Acid  Emulsion 

Hard  soap 

.     1  pound 

Hot  water  (soft) 

.     1  gallon 

CarboUc  acid  (crude) 

.     1  pint 

Dilute  as  directed. 

This  is  one  of  the  remedies  occasionally  recommended  for  killing 
root  maggots.  ,  These  maggots  are  not  properly  sucking  insects,  but 
because  of  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  found,  the  use  of  a 
contact  insecticide  is  sometimes  recommended. 


78  INSECTICIDES  FOR   SUCKING  INSECTS 

Carbolic  acid  emulsion  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  kerosene 
emulsion.  Dissolve  1  pound  of  hard  soap  in  §  gallon  of  boiling 
water.  Then  add  1  pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid,  and  at  once  churn  the 
mixture  by  pumping  it  back  on  itself  with  a  bucket  pump  until  a 
smooth  emulsion  is  formed. 

This  is  the  stock  material.  To  prepare  for  use  dilute  at  the  rate  of 
1  part  of  the  stock  emulsion  to  50  parts  of  water. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Repellents 

Occasionally  some  chemical  is  found  to  be  of  service  in  driving  away 
insects  at  work  on  a  plant.  Many  remedies  of  this  nature  are  pro- 
posed from  time  to  time,  but  in  most  cases  further  tests  prove  that 
they  are  without  real  value. 

Dry-slaked  lime  is  of  service  in  driving  away  certain  pests,  such  as 
the  striped  cucumber  beetle.  To  prepare,  place  fresh  lump  lime  in  a 
metal  vessel  and  add  a  small  amount  of  hot  water.  The  lime  will 
slake  to  an  extremely  fine  powder.  This  is  dusted  on  the  insects. 
If  desired,  flowers  of  sulphur  may  be  added  to  the  slaked  lime. 

Tobacco  dust  is  reasonably  effective  as  a  repellent.  It  must  be 
fresh,  and  is  dusted  directly  on  the  insects;  or  when  used  as  a  pre- 
ventive of  attack  by  root  maggots,  the  dust  is  heaped  up  around 
the  stem  of  each  plant. 

Naphthaline,  or  "  moth  balls,"  is  of  moderate  value  as  a  repellent 
for  such  insects  as  the  common  clothes  moths,  or  for  some  of  the 
pests  that  infest  dried  animal  products.  This  material  is  not,  how- 
ever, a  complete  protection.  It  should  be  noted,  further,  that  if 
moths  have  already  laid  their  eggs  on  garments,  and  the  latter  are 
afterwards  packed  away  with  naphthaline,  no  benefit  whatever  will 
be  s'ecured.  The  substance  is  a  repellent  solely  for  the  adult  moth, 
and  not  for  the  larva,  which  does  the  real  damage. 

Protective  Wash  for  Trunks  of  Trees 
Dissolve  2  quarts  of  strong  soft  soap  in  a  bucket  of  water.     One 
pound  of  hard  soap  may  be  used   instead  of  the  soft  soap.     Add  ^ 
pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid  and  2  ounces  of  Paris  green.     Then  add 
lime,  or  clay,  or  both,  so  as  to  make  a  thick  paste. 

Paint  this  on  the  trunks  or  limbs  of  trees  as  a  deterrent  for  borers. 
It  will  not  give  entire  protection,  but  will  help  to  ward  off  attack. 

79 


CTTAPTT'K    WIT 
FiMUiAN  rs 

In  ^ouoral.  fumipition  is  available  iov  killini!;  insorts  only  wlion  tl\i^ 
plants  or  substauoes  tivatod  are  in  an  inolosoii  space.  This  is  for  the 
reason  tl\at  the  various  gases  whieh  are  the  active  killinj2;  auients  in 
any  fmniiiation  nuist  be  eontined  to  be  elTeetive. 

Funiigatiou  is  eoninionly  used  in  ii;reen houses,  in  the  treatment  of 
pests  infestinu;  stored  or  niantifaetured  products,  and  in  the  treatment 
of  nursery  stock  suspected  of  infestation  with  San  Joso  scale.  The 
methods  employed  and  the  streni2;ths  of  material  used  vary  with  these 
ditYerent  classes  of  work.  The  iivneral  manner  of  using  the  chemicals, 
and  the  principles  involved,  are  similar. 

Carbon  Bisulphide 
Carbon  bisulphide      .         .         1  ])ound  to  each  100  cubic  feet 

This  is  the  material  ordinarily  used  for  killiuii;  pests  of  stored  and 
manufactured  products,  except  in  grain  elevators  where  the  risk  of 
accidental  tire  is  considered  too  great.  It  is  a  cU\ir,  lu\ivv  licjuid, 
with  a  strong  and  disagreeable  odor.  On  exposure  to  air,  it  evapo- 
rates rapidly,  giving  otT  a  gas  that  is  heavier  than  air,  and  therefore 
diffuses  down  rather  than  up. 

Allow  1  pound  of  carbon  bisulphide  for  each  100  cubic  feet  of 
space  in  the  fumigating  chamber.  Or,  if  grain  is  being  fumigated, 
allow  1  ]Hnmd  of  the  liiiuid  to  each  100  bushels  oi  grain.  In  small 
quantities  this  is  about  equivalent  to  2  drams  to  the  bushel. 

This  is  the  dosage  at  ordinary  temperatures  t)f  ()0°  to  70°  Fahren- 
heit.    At  nuich  lower  temperatiu-es  a  heavier  dose  will  be  reciuired, 

80 


CARBON    TKTRACHLOHIIjE  81 

and  at  higher  temperatures  one  half  to  three  fourths  of  the  above 
will  suffice. 

Place  the  material  to  be  treated  in  a  box,  barrel,  or  bin  that  can 
be  made  at  least  fairly  air  tight.  Pour  out  the  carbon  bisulphide  in 
onf;  or  more  shallow  dishes,  and  place  on  top  of  the  materials.  Put 
on  the  cover  at  once,  and  leave  for  twenty-four  hours.  Blankets  or 
canvas  thrown  over  the  top  of  the  box  will  assist  in  retaining  the 
fumes.  1)0  not  allou)  any  fire,  or  even  a  lighted  cigar,  anywhere  near 
at  the  time  of  fumigating  or  for  a  period  after,  until  the  fumes  have 
disappeared. 

Use  reasonable  care  not  to  breathe  the  fumes  too  much  or  too  long 
at  a  time,  as  they  will  be  apt  to  cause  headache  or  illness.  Xo  in- 
convenience should  be  experienced  if  ordinary  care  is  exercised. 

If  large-  amounts  of  grain  are  being  fumigated,  it  is  best  to  intro- 
duce some  of  the  liquid  to  the  middle  layer  of  the  heap  instead  of 
putting  all  on  top.  To  do  this,  fit  a  round  stick  loosely  in  a  section  of 
small  iron  pipe.  Leaving  the  stick  in  the  pipe,  shove  it  down  through 
the  grain.  Then  withdraw  the  stick,  and  pour  the  desired  amount 
of  the  carbon  bisulphide  down  the  pipe.  The  stick  merely  serves  to 
keep  the  grain  from  filling  the  pipe  when  it  Is  shoved  down  into  the 
heap.  After  being  fumigated,  the  grain  should  be  shoveled  over,  so 
as  to  help  remove  the  gas  remaining  in  it. 

Carbon  Tetrachloride 
Carbon  tetrachloride  .         .         2  pounds  to  each  100  cubic  feet 

A  substitute  for  carbon  bisulphide  is  found  in  carbon  tetrachloride. 
It  has  the  advantage  of  being  nonexplosive,  and  therefore  may  be 
preferred  in  fumigating  bins  in  a  house  or  barn,  or  wherever  there  is 
possible  danger  of  fire.  It  is  not  as  active  as  carbon  bisulphide,  and 
will  not  kill  insects  as  readily. 

The  proper  strength  to  use  is  2  pounds  of  carbon  tetrachloride  for 
each  100  culjic  feet  of  space  or  each  100  bushels  of  grain.  In  small 
quantities  use  4  drams  to  each  cubic  foot  or  each  bushel  of  grain. 


82  FUMIGANTS 


Sulphur 

Under  some  conditions  a  satisfactory  fumigation  may  be  had  by 
burning  sulphur  at  the  rate  of  2  pounds  to  1000  cubic  feet.  It  should 
be  noted  that  the  fumes  are  harmful  to  vegetation,  that  they  will 
bleach  fabrics,  and  that  they  will  destroy  the  germinating  power  of 
seeds.  As  a  means  of  killing  bedbugs  in  empty  rooms  the  treatment 
is  excellent. 

Place  the  sulphur  in  a  fire-proof  vessel,  and  this  in  turn  within  a 
larger  vessel,  and  ignite.     Keep  the  place  closed  for  24  hours. 

Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas 

The  most  active  fumigating  agent  in  use  is  hydrocyanic  acid  gas, 
made  by  combining  water,  sulphuric  acid,  and  potassium  cyanide. 
This  gas  is  a  deadUj  'poison  to  man  as  well  as  insects,  and  its  use  should 
not  be  attempted  unless  careful  precautions  are  taken,  or  the  opera- 
tor has  had  experience.  It  should  never  be  used  for  fumigating  any 
part  of  an  inhabited  house,  unless  the  entire  premises  can  be  vacated 
for  two  or  three  days  until  the  structure  is  thoroughy  aired. 

For  fumigating  nursery  stock,  the  materials  are  used  in  the  propor- 
tion of  1  ounce  of  98  per  cent  potassium  cyanide,  2  ounces  of  com- 
mercial sulphuric  acid,  and  4  ounces  of  water  for  each  100  cubic 
feet  of  space  in  the  fumigating  chamber.  The  chamber  is  kept  closed 
for  40  minutes.  To  generate  the  gas,  have  ready  an  earthen  crock 
of  generous  size.  Pour  the  necessary  amount  of  water  into  the  crock, 
and  slowly  add  the  sulphuric  acid,  stirring  the  mixture.  Never  re- 
verse this  order  and  pour  the  water  into  the  acid.  Considerable  heat 
will  be  generated.  Place  the  proper  amount  of  potassium  cyanide  in 
a  paper  bag,  or  tie  up  loosely  in  paper,  drop  the  package  into  the 
crock,  and  at  once  leave  the  room,  closing  it  up  air  tight.  A  con- 
venient way  of  adding  the  cyanide  is  to  suspend  the  bag  over  the 
crock  with  a  string,  the  other  end  of  which  is  led  through  a  small 
hole  in  the  fumigating  chamber,  so  that  the  operator  can  retire  first 
and  seal  the  door,  and  then  lower  the  bag  of  cyanide  into  the  acid. 


HYDROCYANIC  ACID    GAS  83 

In  fumigating  a  house,  or  a  part  of  a  house,  the  materials  are  com- 
bined in  the  same  manner  as  above,  but  the  proportions  to  use  are 
1  ounce  of  cyanide,  1  ounce  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  3  ounces  of 
water  to  each  100  cubic  feet.  All  cracks  should  be  sealed  or  stopped 
up.  Gummed  paper  is  useful  for  this  purpose.  After  the  fumigation 
is  complete,  the  house  must  be  aired  out  by  opening  the  windows 
from  the  outside.  Fumigation  of  dwellings  ought  never  to  be 
attempted  unless  one  thoroughly  understands  the  process  and  the 
necessary  precautions. 

In  greenhouses  the  amount  of  material  to  use  cannot  definitely  be 
specified  in  advance,  and  ought  always  to  be  ascertained  by  careful 
preliminary  trial.  Different  plants  will  withstand  varying  amounts 
of  the  fumigant,  and  much  depends  on  the  tightness  of  the  house. 

It  is  best  to  begin  with  a  dose  of  |  to  ^  ounce  of  cyanide  to  the  thou- 
sand cubic  feet,  continuing  the  treatment  for  about  2  hours,  at  once 
airing  the  house  and  observing  results.  If  the  insects  are  not  all 
killed,  and  the  plants  are  uninjured,  the  dose  may  be  made  a  little 
heavier. 

Fumigation  in  greenhouses  must  aways  be  done  at  night,  and  the 
leaf  surfaces  must  be  dry.  The  house  may  be  aired  out  late  the  same 
night  or  early  the  next  morning,  before  the  sun  is  hot. 

Greenhouse  fumigation  is  of  special  value  against  mealy  bugs, 
white  fly,  and  violet  aphis,  because  other  possible  treatments  are  in- 
jurious to  the  plants  or  ineffective.  It  is  not  successful  against  scale 
insects  or  red  spider. 

When  greenhouses  are  cleared  of  plants  between  crops,  they  should 
be  thoroughly  fumigated,  using  the  cyanide  at  the  rate  of  5  to  8  ounces 
to  the  thousand  cubic  feet  and  continuing  the  treatment  over  night. 
Valuable  protection  will  thus  be  secured  for  the  succeeding  crop. 

Fumigation  with  Tobacco 

For  the  control  of  most  plant  lice  in  greenhouses,  fumigation  with 
tobacco  is  a  common  method.  This  cannot  be  employed  in  houses 
containing  violets,  since  the  fumes  will  spot  the  leaves. 


84  FUM  WANTS 

The  usual  method  is  to  burn  stems  or  dust,  or  to  vaporize  hquid 
extracts  of  tobacco,  or  to  make  use  of  a  specially  prepared  punk  now 
on  sale  in  stores.     The  last  is  usually  the  most  satisfactory  method. 

It  is  desirable  in  tobacco  fumigation  to  generate  the  smudge  near 
the  level  of  the  floor,  because  it  rises  rather  rapidly,  and  if  generated 
at  the  height  of  the  benches,  much  of  the  strength  of  the  fumigant  will 
be  concentrated  near  the  roof. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

Fungicides  combined  with  Poisons 

Materials  that  are  used  for  the  control  of  plant  diseases,  such  as 
scab,  mildew,  and  the  like,  are  called  fungicides,  as  contrasted  with 
materials  used  for  the  destruction  of  insects,  called  insecticides.  Fungi- 
cides are  not  intended  for  the  control  of  insect  pests,  and  for  the  most 
part  have  no  value  whatever  in  insect  warfare. 

However,  one  of  the  materials  commonly  used  for  plant  diseases, 
Bordeaux  mixture,  has  also  some  effect  in  driving  away  certain  insects 
from  plants,  or  at  least  is  distasteful  to  them.  A  second  fungicide, 
lime  sulphur,  as  prepared  for  use  in  summer  on  trees  in  leaf,  also  has 
some  value  as  a  mild  contact  insecticide,  of  considerable  efficiency 
against  such  soft-bodied  sucking  insects  as  plant  lice. 

In  addition,  it  is  common  practice  to  use  either  of  these  materials 
with  a  poison,  such  as  arsenate  of  lead,  added  to  it,  as  a  combined 
insecticide  and  fungicide,  instead  of  applying  the  two  sprays  sepa- 
rately. Directions  for  their  preparation  and  use,  therefore,  seem 
proper  at  this  point. 

Bordeaux  Mixture 

Copper  sulphate 4  pounds 

Lump  lime 4  pounds 

Water  50  gallons 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  a  combination  of  copper  sulphate,  often  known 
as  "  blue  vitriol  "  or  "  bluestone,"  with  lime  and  water.  It  may  be 
bought  in  paste  form,  ready  to  dilute  with  water  and  apply;  or  it 
may  easily  be  made  at  home. 

To  make  Bordeaux  mixture,  place  25  gallons  of  water  in  a  barrel, 
and  suspend  in  it,  just  below  the  surface,  a  cloth  bag  containing  4 

85 


86  FUNGICIDES   COMBINED    WITH  POISONS 

pounds  of  copper  sulphate.  Allow  the  copper  sulphate  completely  to 
dissolve.  If  it  is  desired  to  hurry  this  part  of  the  process,  the  sul- 
phate may  be  dissolved  in  hot  water,  using  about  2  gallons  and 
stirring  well,  and  this  may  then  be  poured  into  the  barrel  and  the 
latter  filled  up  to  25  gallons.  In  another  barrel  slake  4  pounds  of 
lump  Ume,  adding  more  water  and  stirring  well  as  the  lime  dissolves, 
until  there  are  25  gallons  in  the  barrel.  Then  combine  the  sulphate 
solution  and  the  limewater  by  dipping  alternately  from  each  into  the 
spray  tank.  Or,  the  two  may  be  poured  slowly  at  the  same  time  into 
the  spray  tank.  It  is  essential  that  the  mixture  be  thoroughly  strained 
as  it  goes  into  the  sprayer. 

On  some  plants  the  above  formula  for  Bordeaux  mixture  is  too 
strong,  and  should  be  altered  to  the  following :  copper  sulphate,  2 
pounds;  lump  lime,  2  pounds;  water,  50  gallons.  The  method  of  mak- 
ing is  the  same. 

Bordeaux  mixture  must  be  used  as  soon  as  prepared.  If  allowed  to 
stand,  it  changes  in  composition.  More  lime  may  be  added,  and  the 
material  thus  made  use  of,  but  this  procedure  is  not  recommended. 

Where  this  material  is  used  in  large  amounts  it  is  convenient  to 
prepare  separate  stocks  of  copper  sulphate  solution  and  lime  "  putty.'* 
Kept  separate,  they  will  not  deteriorate.  Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate 
in  water  at  the  rate  of  1  pound  of  the  sulphate  to  1  gallon  of 
water.  One  gallon  of  this  concentrated  solution  will  then  equal  1 
pound  of  the  sulphate.  To  prepare  lime  putty,  place  a  known  weight 
of  lump  lime  in  a  flat  trough  and  add  just  enough  water  to  slake  it. 
When  it  is  all  slaked,  see  that  it  is  spread  out  evenly  and  cover  with  an 
inch  or  so  of  clear  water,  to  exclude  the  air.  It  will  be  easy  to  figure 
out  the  number  of  square  inches  of  putty  to  remove  in  order  to  have 
the  equivalent  of  the  desired  weight  of  lump  lime.  Do  not  make  the 
mistake  of  weighing  out  this  putty  and  considering  that  a  given  weight 
is  the  equal  of  the  same  weight  of  lump  lime. 

Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  combined  with  diluted  Bordeaux  mixture ; 
but  the  better  plan  is  to  add  it  to  the  limewater  before  the  final  mixing. 
The  poison  should  first  be  well  mixed  with  water,  so  as  to  make  a 
thin  paste,  in  order  that  all  of  it  may  find  its  way  into  the  final  mix- 


SUMMER   STRENGTH  LIME   SULPHUR  87 

ture.  If  this  is  done,  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  volume  of  the 
arsenate  of  lead  solution  when  filling  up  the  barrel  of  hmewater  to 
the  requisite  25  gallons. 

A  ready  prepared  Bordeaux  paste  containing  arsenate  of  lead  is  on 
sale  in  stores. 

Summer  Strength  Lime  Sulphur 

Summer  strength  lime  sulphur  is  now  coming  into  use  a«  a  fungi- 
cide for  the  control  of  certain  diseases.  While  this  is  similar,  chemi- 
cally, to  the  lime-sulphur  wash  used  as  a  winter  spray  for  scale  insects, 
it  is  much  weaker.  It  is  prepared  by  proper  dilution  of  the  com- 
mercial concentrated  solutions,  or  by  a  so-called  "  self-boiled  "  method, 
in  which  the  chemical  composition  is  somewhat  different.  The  proper 
dilutions  of  lime-sulphur  concentrate  for  summer  spraying  of  apples, 
making  use  of  the  Baume  hydrometer  as  a  measure  of  strength,  are  as 
follows : 

In  Degrees  Baum£  Number    of    Gallons 

Reading  of  Hydrometer  of  Water  to  One  Gal- 

lon OF  Concentrate 

35  45 

34  43i 

32  40 

31  37i 

30  36i 

29  341 

28       •  32f 

27  31 

26  29i 

25  271 

24  .  26 

23  24i 

22  22f 

21  2U 

20  19f 

19  18i 

18  17 

15  14 

14  121 


88  FUNGICIDES    COMBINED     WITH  POISONS 

Remember  that  these  are  the  dilutions  for  summer  strength  hme 
sulphur  to  be  used  on  apple  trees  in  leaf,  and  not  for  the  winter  wash, 
which  is  much  stronger. 

The  self -boiled  lime  sulphur  is  for  summer  use  only,  and  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  winter  wash  used  for  scale  insects.  The  method  of 
making  is  as  follows: 

Place  20  pounds  of  lump  lime  in  a  barrel  and  pour  over  it  3  gallons 
of  cold  water.  As  soon  as  the  slaking  is  well  started,  add  20  pounds  of 
flowers  of  sulphur,  which  must  be  free  from  lumps.  Begin  stirring  the 
mixture  as  soon  as  the  sulphur  is  added.  A  violent  heat  will  be  gen- 
rated  by  the  slaking  of  the  hme,  and  it  is  this  that  brings  about  the 
desired  combination  of  the  two  materials.  Now  add  more  cold  water 
until  the  mass  has  the  consistency  of  paste.  The  boiling  will  subside  in 
from  5  to  15  minutes,  and  at  once  more  cold  water  must  be  added  so 
that  no  further  action  will  take  place.  There  should  be  none  of  the  red 
hquid  that  indicates  the  formation  of  the  chemical  compounds  charac- 
teristic of  the  winter  wash.  The  mixture  may  now  be  diluted  for  use  by 
adding  water  until  there  are  100  gallons  all  told.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  to  follow  the  above  directions  accurately,  for  if  the  boiling  is  con- 
tinued too  long,  compounds  will  be  formed  that  will  burn  tender  foliage. 
In  no  case  should  hot  water  be  used  instead  of  cold,  either  for  slaking 
the  lime  or  for  the  dilutions. 

Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  added  to  the  summer  strength  lime  sulphur, 
thus  providing  a  combined  fungicide  and  poison  insecticide,  with 
certain  additional  properties  as  a  contact  insecticide.  This  applies 
either  to  the  diluted  concentrate  or  to  the  self-boiled  lime  sulphur. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
Spray  Machinery  —  General  Principles 

Several  important  considerations  should  l^e  taken  into  account  in 
the  selection  and  care  of  spray  machinery  and  appliances.  Chief 
among  these  are  the  following : 

The  spray  pump  should  be  of  adequate  size  for  the  work  for  which  it 
is  intended  to  be  used.  As  will  l)e  noted  below,  there  are  many  different 
sizes  and  styles  of  pumps,  ranging  from  the  hand  atomizer  with  a 
capacity  of  a  quart  or  less  of  spray  material,  and  suitable  only  for  a 
very  limited  use,  to  the  heavy  power  outfit  fitted  with  a  200-gallon  tank, 
and  capable  of  throwing  a  stream  70  feet  into  the  air.  Either 
outfit  would  be  absolutely  unsuited  to  the  work  of  the  other.  While 
these  two  examples  are  at  the  extremes,  the  same  principle  holds  good, 
in  lesser  form,  to  other  outfits  that  grade  in  between  these  two.  It 
is  poor  economy  to  save  four  or  five  dollars  on  an  outfit  and  expend 
several  times  that  amount  each  season  in  extra  labor  and  time.  The 
first  question  to  be  decided,  therefore,  is  that  of  the  type  and  size  of 
pump  that  will  be  best  adapted  to  the  work  in  hand. 

Whatever  the  style  of  pump  decided  on,  it  must  be  made  of  proper 
materials.  Some  of  the  spray  solutions  in  common  use  have  a  corroding 
action  on  iron.  The  only  material  that  will  withstand  their  attack  is 
brass  or  bronze,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  get  a  piimp  in  which  all  the 
metal  working  parts  that  come  into  contact  with  the  liquid  are  of  heavy 
brass  or  similar  alloy.  This  applies  to  the  inside  of  the  cyhnder,  the 
piston,  the  valves,  valve  seats,  and  any  other  submerged  parts  where 
close  fitting  is  essential  to  the  smooth  and  satisfactory  working  of  the 
apparatus. 

Lately  pumps  have  been  placed  on  the  market  in  which  the  inside 
of  the  cylinder  is  coated  with  a  heavy,  white  enamel.     If  this  is  so 


90  SPRAY  MACHINERY — GENERAL   PRINCIPLES 

applied  that  it  presents  a  perfectly  true  surface  for  the  piston,  and  if  the 
enamel  is  so  baked  on  that  it  will  not  chip  or  wear  rough  from  the  grit 
that  invariably  gets  into  spray  material,  such  cylinders  should  prove 
satisfactory. 

A  pump  must  have  an  efficient  mechanical  agitator,  which  will 
automatically  keep  the  liquid  thoroughly  stirred.  A  jet  of  liquid 
forced  out  in  the  vicinity  of  the  intake  is  insufficient.  Agitators  of 
the  paddle  type,  connected  in  some  fashion  to  the  pump  handle  or  piston 
rod,  are  in  general  use,  and  are  fairly  effective.  Another  style  of  agi- 
tator works  on  the  principle  of  a  propeller,  and  gives  excellent  service. 

The  size  of  air  chamber  is  important.  If  it  is  large,  the  operator  of 
the  pump  will  find  that  a  steady  pressure  can  much  more  easily  be 
maintained.  Power  pumps  are  apt  to  have  air  chambers  of  proper  size, 
because  if  lacking,  they  will  quickly  tell  on  the  working  of  the  engine, 
especially  if  the  latter  is  of  the  single  cylinder  type.  Some  of  the  smaller 
hand  pumps  would  be  more  efficient  and  would  work  more  easily  if  pro- 
vided with  a  more  generous  air  cushion.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  the  spray  liquid  is  only  to  a  minute  degree  compressible,  whereas 
air  is  resilient  and  absorbs  the  variations  in  pressure  between  strokes. 

Valves  are  necessarily  a  part  of  every  pump,  and  are  of  various  t5^es. 
Those  in  commonest  use  are  the  poppet  valve,  the  swing  check,  and 
the  ball  valve.  Of  these  the  ball  valve  is  apt  to  give  the  best  satis- 
faction, if  it  is  made  of  proper  materials.  The  action  of  the  liquid  tends 
constantly  to  turn  the  ball  this  way  and  that  as  it  rises  and  falls,  resulting 
in  equal  wear  all  round,  both  as  regards  the  ball  and  the  seat.  Poppet 
valves  with  a  single  rod  guide  beneath  to  hold  them  in  line  are  very  likely 
to  wear  unevenly  and  later  to  leak,  resulting  in  weakened  efficiency. 
Any  valve  with  a  straight  or  square,  instead  of  a  beveled  seat  is  apt  to 
give  trouble.  All  poppet  valves  present  the  following  difficulty: 
they  tend  to  seat  in  identical  positions,  and  if  grit  or  other  foreign 
matter  gets  in,  there  is  leakage  at  one  point,  which  does  not  promptly 
right  itself  and  soon  results  in  uneven  wear.  It  is  essential  to  the 
satisfactory  working  of  a  pump  that  its  valves  fit  accurately  and  do  not 
leak. 

Ease  of  getting  at  the  working  parts  of  the  pump  is  worthy  of  con- 


THE   PARTS    OF   A    PUMP  91 

sideration.  In  spite  of  the  care  that  may  be  exercised  in  keeping  the 
apparatus  in  good  order  and  straining  all  materials  used,  there  will  be 
occasions  when  it  becomes  essential  to  inspect  the  valves  or  other 
working  parts.  If,  in  order  to  do  this,  it  is  necessary  to  dismount  the 
pump,  or  to  take  it  entirely  to  pieces,  much  time  will  be  lost  —  prob- 
ably on  the  very  day  when  time  is  most  valuable.  Some  of  the  barrel 
pumps  first  placed  on  the  market  were  entirely  inclosed  in  a  heavy  metal 
casting,  and  required  much  time  and  labor  for  inspecting  their  working 
parts.  Later  types  have  eliminated  this,  although  some  of  the  older 
pumps  are  still  on  the  market. 

The  piston  packing  should  present  adequate  surface,  and  the  packing 
itself  should  be  easily  replaceable.  In  some  makes  of  pumps  pro- 
vision has  been  made  for  tightening  up  the  packing  from  the  outside. 
Leather  is  not  a  good  material  for  packing.  The  chemicals  used  in 
spray  materials  will  soon  harden  it  and  render  it  unfit  for  service. 

In  some  makes  of  barrel  pumps  a  stuffing  box  is  employed  in  place  of 
piston  packing.  The  objection  to  this  is  twofold :  it  makes  a  rather 
more  complicated  apparatus,  and  it  is  difficult  or  impossible  to  avoid 
excessive  friction.  In  the  horizontal,  double-action  pump  a  stuffing 
box  is  necessary,  because  of  the  design  of  the  pump,  but  in  this  case, 
there  is  so  much  gain  in  efficiency  in  other  ways  that  the  objection  noted 
may  be  disregarded. 


CHAPTER  XX 


Types  and  Sizes  of  Spray  Pumps.     Dusting  Apparatus 


Atomizers 


Fig.  56. — A  hand  atomizer.     Original. 

one  quart,  and  are  adapted  for  use  on 

work. 

Bucket  Pumps 

Bucket  pumps  are  suitable  for  work  in 
a  small  garden,  and  for  whitewashing  or 
spraying  poultry  houses.  They  may 
readily  be  fitted  with  a  longer  hose  and 
an  extension  rod,  and  may  then  be  used 
for  spraying  fruit  trees,  if  one  has  only 
a  few  trees  to  treat.  In  garden  spray- 
ing their  principal  disadvantage  is  the 
fact  that  one  cannot  work  rapidly  when 
compelled  to  move  a  bucket  along  a  few 
feet  at  a  time,  and  that  it  is  not  always 
easy  to  manipulate  the  pump,  and  at 
the  same  time  direct  the  spray  where 
needed. 

92 


These  are  small 
and  cheap  devices,  pro- 
ducing a  spray  by  the 
principle  of  driving  a 
current  of  air  across 
a  small  outlet  tube. 
They  are  provided 
with  a  metal  or  glass 
tank  holding  about 
house  plants,  or  similar  light 


Fig.  57.  —  A  bucket  pump. 
Original. 


SMALL   HAND   PUMPS 


93 


Knapsack  Pumps 

Knapsack  pumps  consist  of  an  oblong  tank  furnished  with  straps 
for  hanging  on  the  back,  and  provided  with  a  small,  inclosed 
pump,  the  handle  of  which  projects  forward  over  one's  shoulder. 
They  are  not  in  general  favor.  The  apparatus  is  fairly  heavy 
to  carry,  and  is  likely  to 
spill  liquid  down  one's  back. 


V 

s. 

-C^N 

> 

% 

>'^^^^^H^^B 

Fig. 

58.  —  A  knapsack  sprayer. 
Original. 

Fig.  59. 


An   automatic   sprayer. 
Original. 


Automatic  Sprayers 

Automatic  sprayers  are  air-tight  cylinders  designed  to  be  carried  by 
hand.  The  cylinder  is  filled  partly  full  of  the  spray  material,  the  top 
fastened  on,  and  by  means  of  a  self-contained  pump  air  is  forced  in 
until  the  liquid  within  is  under  pressure.  A  valve  allows  the  spray  to 
be  driven  out  through  the  nozzle  as  desired.  The  apparatus  is  handy, 
and  desirable  for  garden  work.  Its  principal  disadvantage  is  the  lack  of 
an  agitator.  Only  the  brass  sprayers  should  be  purchased.  Those  in 
which  the  tank  is  made  of  iron,  while  cheaper,  will  not  give  satisfaction. 

A  light  extension  rod  may  be  attached  to  the  cylinder,  and  the 
apparatus  used  for  spraying  small  trees,  if  only  a  few  are  to  be 
treated. 


94 


SPRAY  APPARATUS 


Barrel  Pumps 

Barrel  pumps  of  one  type  or  another  are  in  use  in  the  majority  of 
orchards  of  moderate  size  where  any  spraying  is  done.  Usually  they 
are  mounted  directly  on  a  50-gallon  barrel,  which  serves  as  the  spray 
tank.     Such  pumps  have  a  capacity  ranging  from  1  to  4  gallons  of 


Fig.  60. — A  barrel  pump.     Original. 


liquid  per  minute,  and  are  intended  to  operate  at  a  pressure  of  100  to  125 
pounds.  They  are  capable  of  furnishing  material  for  two  leads  of  hose. 
Commonly  the  outfit  is  placed  on  a  wagon  of  some  kind,  or  on  a  sled. 
Unless  the  trees  to  be  sprayed  are  headed  very  low,  there  should  be  a 
simple  tower  or  elevated  platform,  about  4  feet  high,  bolted  to  the 
wagon,  on  which  one  of  the  operators  may  stand  while  the  other 
works  from  the  ground. 


LARGE  HAND   PUMPS 


95 


Horizontal  Pumps 

Horizontal  hand  pumps  are  typically  of  the  double-action  type,  and 
have  a  capacity  of  3  to  5  gallons  of  spray  material  per  minute.  They 
have  a  marked  advantage  over  barrel  pumps  in  that  the  handle  is  longer 


Fig.  61.  — A  convenient  tower  used  in  connection  with  a  barrel  pump.    Original. 

and  works  in  such  position  that  the  operator  can  maintain  the  desired 
pressure  and  volume  with  much  less  effort.  They  do  not  bring  the 
constant  strain  on  the  muscles  of  the  back,  characteristic  of  barrel 
pumps,  and  since  they  arc  double  acting,  both  the  forward  and  the 
reverse  strokes  count.  In  efficiency,  pumps  of  this  type  are  nearly 
the  equivalent  of  the  smaller  power  outfits. 


96 


SPRAY   APPARATUS 


Traction  Outfits 

Traction  sprayers  derive  their  power  from  the  wheels  of  the  vehicle 
on  which  the  pump  and  tank  are  mounted.  They  are  especially  useful 
in  spraying  grapes,  potatoes,  or  other  field  crops ;  in  other  words,  they 
are  adapted  to  the  kind  of  work  in  which  one  desires  a  continuous  spray 

delivered  constantly 
at  a  definite  position 
or  angle.  For  spray- 
ing of  this  character 
they  may  properly  be 
selected.  For  general 
orchard  work  they 
are  not  suited  unless 
there  is  some  ar- 
rangement by  which 
the  gearing  may  be 
disconnected  and  the 
pump  operated  by 
hand  when  desired. 
Outfits  of  this  kind 
should  always  be  pro- 
vided with  a  large 
air  chamber,  a  pres- 
sure gauge  in  plain 
sight,  and  a  relief 
valve  which  will  open 
at  a  certain  pressure  and  allow  the  fiquid  to  flow  back  into  the  tank. 
The  capacity  of  traction  sprayers  is  figured  on  the  basis  of  a  vehicle 
moving  at  the  rate  of  250  feet  a  minute,  and  ranges  from  5  to  18 
gallons  of  liquid  per  minute.  The  connection  to  wheels  is  made  by 
eccentric,  chain,  or  gearing. 

Hand  traction  sprayers  operate  on  the  same  principle,  but  are  much 
smaller,  are  intended  to  be  wheeled  about  by  hand,  have  a  tank  of 
about  20  gallons  capacity,  and  are  so  arranged  that  the  pump  may  be 
thrown  out  of  gear  and  operated  in  the  same  fashion  as  a  barrel  pump. 


Fig.  G2. — A  horizontal  pump.     Original. 


POWER    OUTFITS 


97 


They  are  fairly  satisfactory,  but  are  apt  to  prove  heavy  and  hard  to 
manage.  In  one  type  the  construction  is  such  that  a  single  horse  may 
be  hitched  to  the  outfit,  which  is  then  guided  by  the  operator  much  in 
the  manner  of  a  plow. 

Power  Sprayers 

Power  outfits  consist  essentially  of  a  gasoline  engine,  a  rather  heavy 
pump  geared  or  belted  to  the  engine,  and  a  large  tank,  the  whole 


A  gasoline  power  sprayer.     Original. 


98  SPRAY  APPARATUS 

mounted  on  skids  or  on  wheels.  Such  outfits  range  in  capacity  from  4 
to  12  gallons  of  spray  material  per  minute,  and  are  operated  at  a  pressure 
of  200  pounds  or  more.  The  pumps  used  may  be  of  the  large,  single 
cyhnder,  single-action  type,  or  double  action,  or  multiple  cyhnder. 
The  engines  in  the  smaller  and  medium  size  outfits  are  usually  of  1^ 
to  3  horse  power,  single  cyhnder,  and  either  air  or  hopper  cooled.  In 
the  recently  designed,  extremely  powerful  outfits,  used  for  spraying 
tall  trees  from  the  ground,  the  engine  is  of  the  automobile  or  marine 
type,  with  two,  three,  or  four  cylinders.  The  main  advantages  of 
power  outfits  include  the  rapidity  with  which  the  work  can  be  accom- 
plished, the  saving  of  hand  labor  at  pumping,  and  the  high  pressure  at 
which  the  spray  is  applied.  Where  many  trees  are  to  be  sprayed,  the 
power  outfit  will  do  the  work  at  less  cost  per  tree  than  the  less  ex- 
pensive, smaller  outfit. 

Compressed  Air  Outfits 

Compressed  air  sprayers  are  in  use  in  some  orchards.  In  this  type 
of  apparatus  the  sprayer  itself  consists  simply  of  two  large  steel  tanks 
mounted  on  skids  or  wheels,  and  fitted  with  the  necessary  leads  of 
hose.  One  of  the  tanks  is  filled  with  the  spray  material,  while  in  the 
other  air  is  stored  under  considerable  pressure,  usually  160  pounds. 
Pipes  connect  the  air  tank  with  the  liquid  tank,  and  the  spray  material 
is  agitated  by  arranging  the  inlet  of  air  in  such  fashion  that  it  comes  out 
of  a  number  of  jets  at  intervals  along  the  bottom  of  the  liquid  tank. 
The  air  is  compressed  at  a  central  station  by  means  of  an  air  com- 
pressor using  gasoline  or  other  power.  It  is  customary  to  have  two 
or  more  of  the  sprayers,  so  that  one  may  be  at  the  central  station  re- 
ceiving its  spray  material  and  its  charge  of  compressed  air,  while  the 
other  is  in  the  orchard.  Usually  the  air  pressure  is  reduced  to  about 
80  pounds  by  the  time  a  sprayer  has  discharged  its  liquid  and  is  ready 
to  return  to  the  central  station.  The  system  has  the  advantage  of 
rather  rapid  work,  and  of  comparative  simplicity,  so  far  as  the  sprayer 
itself  is  concerned.  Its  disadvantages  are  the  fact  that  it  operates 
necessarily  at  a  constantly  changing  pressure,  thus  tending  somewhat 
to  uneven  work,  and  the  high  cost  of  installing  the  plant. 


DUSTING  MACHINES 


99 


Dusting  Apparatus 

Various  types  of  machines  are  obtainable  for  applying  insecticides 
in  powder  form.  Most  of  these  are  designed  to  be  carried  by  hand,  and 
rapid  work  can  be  done  with  them  under  suitable  conditions.  They  are 
not  so  well  adapted  to  applying  materials  to  trees,  nor  to  situations 
that  are  difficult  to  reach  because  of  thick,  intervening  foliage  —  as, 
for  example,  in  treating 
vineyards.  But  for  use  on 
truck  or  field  crops,  espe- 
cially in  the  application 
of  powdered  arsenate  of 
lead,  they  have  a  growing 
utility.  In  the  more  de- 
sirable types  a  constant 
stream  of  air  is  maintained 
by  a  rotary  fan,  and  the 

powder  may  be  directed  through  one  or  more  outlets  as  desired, 
amount  of  material  delivered  may  also  be  regulated. 

For  dusting  field  crops  a  simple  device  is  in  use  in  the  South,  consist- 
ing of  a  pole  4  to  8  feet  long,  to  which  are  tacked  cloth  bags  at 
proper  intervals,  according  to  the  distance  between  rows.  A  hole 
bored  through  the  pole  above  the  bag  provides  a  means  of  filling  it. 
Often  the  pole  is  set  across  a  horse's  back,  the  jarring  being  sufficient  to 
sift  the  poison  through  the  cloth. 


Fig.  64.  — A  geared  powder  gun.     Original. 


The 


CHAPTER  XXI 

Accessories 

Nozzles 

Nozzles,  as  now  designed,  have  reached  a  point  of  greater  efficiency 
than  was  the  case  a  few  years  ago.  On  small  hand  outfits,  adapted 
for  the  kitchen  garden,  the  question  of  nozzle  is  not  so  important.  It 
is  neither  possible  nor  necessary  to  get  up  heavy  pressure  with  these 
outfits,  and  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done  is  comparatively  light. 
But  in  orchard  spraying,  particularly  on  a  large  scale,  the  nozzle  may 
greatly  help  or  hinder  rapid  and  satisfactory  work. 

The  so-called  Bordeaux  nozzle  is  one  of  the  older  types  still  in  use 
on  light  hand  outfits.  It  has  an  adjustable  opening,  which  may  be 
arranged  so  as  to  throw  a  semisolid,  fan-shaped  stream,  or  a  fairly 
fine  spray.  This  nozzle  is  entirely  unsuited  to  orchard  work  on  any 
considerable  scale,  but  is  well  liked  for  vineyard  or  field  spraying  be- 
cause the  nozzle  can  quickly  be  cleaned  by  reversing  the  core. 

The  vermorel  nozzle  has  a  central  orifice,  back  of  which  is  usually  some 
particular  type  of  chamber.  As  originally  designed,  the  entire  nozzle 
was  small,  and  the  central  opening  decidedly  so.  It  invariably  clogged 
up  in  short  order,  and  hence  was,  and  is,  made  with  some  sort  of  needle 
built  into  the  central  line  of  the  nozzle,  and  so  arranged  that  this 
needle  can  be  forced  forward  to  clear  the  orifice.  The  nozzle  gives  a 
fine,  mist  spray.  Its  defects  are  its  intolerable  tendency  to  clog  and  the 
fact  that  it  can  deliver  only  a  small  quantity  of  spray  material;  in 
other  words,  it  is  of  low  capacity.  However,  on  light  hand  outfits, 
it  is  in  general  use  and  is  fairly  satisfactory. 

The  modern  disk  nozzle  was  evolved  from  the  vermorel.     It  differs 

100 


TYPES    OF  NOZZLES 


101 


from  the  old  form  in  being  much  larger,  in  having  a  larger  orifice,  and 
in  relying  on  the  design  of  the  chamber  back  of  the  orifice,  combined 
with  an  interposed  plate,  to  give  the  finely  divided  spray  desired. 
It  has  large  capacity,  especially  when  operating  under  the  heavy 
pressure  generated  in  a  power  outfit.  The  tendency  to  clog  is  reduced, 
but  unfortunately  is  not  by  any  means  entirely  eliminated.  At  the 
present  stage  in  designing,  it  is  the  most  satisfactory  and  efficient 
nozzle  for  ordinary  orchard  work.  Practically  all  of  the  manufacturers 
of  spray  apparatus  are  making  a  nozzle  of  this  type. 

For  special  work  in  spraying  shade  trees  from  the  ground  still  another 
type  of  nozzle  has  lately  been  evolved.     This  is  essentially  a  heavy  brass 


Fig.  65.  — Types  of  nozzles.     On  the  left,  the  vermorel ;  in  the  center,  the  disk 
type  ;  on  the  right  the  Bordeaux.     Original. 

tube,  from  three  to  six  feet  in  length,  with  gradually  diminishing  bore, 
ending  in  a  simple  round  orifice,  from  one  eighth  to  three  eighths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  It  is  operated  under  extremely  heavy  pressure,  and 
sends  high  into  the  air  a  solid  stream  which  breaks  into  a  fairly  fine  spray 
as  it  nears  the  summit  of  its  arc.  Naturally  the  material  is  delivered  at 
a  rapid  rate.  The  advantage  for  extensive  work  on  shade  trees  lies  in 
eliminating  the  necessity  of  climbing  the  trees,  thereby  reducing  the 
cost  of  spraying  in  spite  of  the  amount  of  material  used. 


Extension  Rods 

Extension  rods  are  necessary  in  orchard  spraying,  in  order  to  elevate 
the  nozzles  to  a  point  where  the  spray  can  reach  the  upper  parts  of  the 
tree.  Such  rods  are  of  two  types :  small  iron  pipe,  and  metal-lined  bam- 
boo.    Iron  rods  are  more  commonly  used,  and  are  satisfactory,  except 


102  ACCESSORIES 

for  their  weight.  They  are  more  easily  grasped  if  wood  handles  are 
fitted  around  them.  Bamboo  rods  are  lighter,  and  therefore  tire  the 
operator  less.     Those  lined  with  aluminum  sometimes  cause  trouble 

through  the  twisting  off  of 
the  connections  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  rod.  Where 
aluminum  is  used  the  metal 
should  be  of  heavy  gauge 
at  this  point,  and  should 
be  one  of  the  harder  alloys. 

■p      aa      r-  ^   a     A     A   t  I.     V.        .  There  should  be  a  cut-off 

Fig.  66.  —  Cut-off  and  end  of  bamboo  exten- 
sion rod.  Original.  at  the  lower  end  of  the  ex- 
tension rod,  and  it  should 
have  a  handle  of  sufficient  size  to  give  a  good  grasp  for  turning 
on  or  off.  Unless  rods  are  provided  with  an  easily  operated  cut-off, 
much  spray  material  will  be  wasted  in  working  from  one  part  of  a  tree 
to  another  or  from  tree  to  tree. 

Hose 

Hose  leads  are  essential  for  barrel  or  power  outfits.  The  length  of 
hose  naturally  varies  with  the  character  of  work  contemplated.  If 
two  leads  are  used  from  a  single  pump,  and  one  operator  stands  on 
the  spray  wagon  or  on  an  elevated  platform,  it  is  convenient  to  have 
the  hose  in  two  lengths,  the  longer  for  the  man  on  the  ground  and  the 
shorter  for  the  man  on  the  platform.  One  half  or  three  eighths  inch 
hose  may  be  used.  The  former  transmits  the  pressure  to  better 
advantage;    the  latter  is  lighter  to  handle. 

Hose  connections  deserve  consideration,  especially  in  outfits  designed 
to  work  under  considerable  pressure,  as  in  power  apparatus.  The  long 
connections,  which  admit  of  two  bands  on  each  side  instead  of  one, 
should  be  selected. 

In  high-power  outfits  for  shade-tree  work,  special  hose  is  needed. 
Connections  are  obtainable  for  this  work  which  are  provided  with 
bands  fastened  mechanically  to  the  unions,  so  that  the  hose  cannot 
come  apart  when  being  dragged  over  the  ground. 


HOSE  —  STRAINERS  —  TANKS  103 

Strainers 

An  essential  part  of  any  outfit  is  a  good  strainer.  Many  spray 
materials  contain  a  great  deal  of  sediment,  and  the  coarser  parts  of  this 
must  be  removed  if  long  life  is  to  be  expected  of  the  pump,  or  continual 
clogging  of  the  nozzles  avoided.  Furthermore,  unless  all  materials  are 
carefully  strained  as  they  are  poured  into  the  spray  tank,  various  sorts 
of  foreign  matter,  such  as  waste,  filings,  or  bits  of  wood  or  leaves,  will 
get  into  the  tank  and  be  sucked  up  into  the  pump,  where  they  will 
cause  trouble. 

A  satisfactory  strainer  can  be  made  by  cutting  out  the  central 
portion  of  the  bottom  of  a  12-quart  pail,  fastening  a  large  funnel 
securely  beneath,  and  a  generous  cone  of  wire  cloth  above,  within  the 
bucket.  The  edges  of  the  wire  cloth  forming  the  cone  should  be 
soldered  together. 

Another  excellent  type  consists  of  an  oblong  box,  one  end  of  which 
is  made  somewhat  sloping,  so  that  the  affair  can  be  set  into  the  opening 
of  the  spray  tank  without  binding.  The  box  is  without  top  or  bottom. 
An  oblong  piece  of  wire  cloth  is  fastened  into  the  box  at  an  angle,  so 
that  one  end  of  it  is  nearer  the  top  than  the  other. 

In  both  of  these  strainers  the  essential  feature  is  that  the  wire  mesh 
shall  be  so  fixed  that  sediment  will  not  clog  it.  In  either  one  the  spray 
material  will  constantly  wash  clean  the  upper  part  of  the  screen. 
Sediment  that  collects  along  the  bottom  of  the  screen  can  readily  be 
dumped  out  from  time  to  time.  The  wire  cloth  used  should  be  of 
brass,  20  to  30  meshes  to  the  inch.  Nothing  else  will  give  satisfactory 
service. 

Spray  Tanks 

The  ordinary  size  of  spray  tank  for  use  with  a  hand  pump  in  orchard 
work  is  50  gallons.  Frequently  the  tank  consists  of  a  barrel,  with  a 
pump  mounted  on  its  end  or  side. 

For  use  with  a  power  pump  the  spray  tank  should  be  larger,  pref- 
erably of  150  to  200  gallons  capacity.  The  best  type  is  the  half  round, 
because  it  may  more  easily  be  tightened  up  and  kept  from  leaking.  All- 
round  stave  tanks,  if  provided  with  some  means  of  tightening  the  hoops 


104  ACCESSORIES 

readily,  are  satisfactory.  Iron  tanks  are  somewhat  objectionable 
because  if  copper  compounds,  such  as  Bordeaux  mixture  or  copper 
sulphate  solution,  are  used  in  such  tanks,  the  chemicals  will  tend  to 
break  down.     Other  chemicals  have  a  corroding  action  on  the  iron. 

Mixing  Tanks 

Where  extensive  spraying  is  carried  on  it  is  convenient  and  desirable 
to  provide  suitable  mixing  tanks  elevated  on  a  stout  platform.  By 
this  means  much  valuable  time  will  be  saved  in  the  preparation  of 
materials.  In  addition,  the  work  of  spraying  can  be  completed  more 
promptly,  the  materials  applied  when  they  will  do  the  most  good,  and 
advantage  taken  of  favorable  weather  conditions. 

The  design  of  a  mixing  plant  will  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  work  to 
be  done,  the  amount  of  work,  the  topography  of  the  location,  the  source 
of  water  supply,  and  like  matters.  The  general  principles  governing 
its  design  are  the  provision  of  an  adequate  supply  of  stock  solution, 
convenience  in  mixing,  and  the  utilization  of  gravity  in  transferring 
liquids  from  stock  tanks  to  mixing  tanks,  and  from  the  latter  to  the 
spray  tank.  Expensive  and  troublesome  outlet  valves  may  be  avoided 
by  using  a  section  of  large  diameter  hose,  the  free  end  of  which  may  be 
fastened  up  above  the  level  of  the  hquid  in  the  tank. 


PART   III 

INJURIOUS   INSECTS 


CHAPTER  XXII 

Insect  Pests  of  Garden  and  Field  Crops 


Wire  worms  (Elateridoe) 

WiREWORMS  are  slender,  cylindrical  worms,  ^  inch  to  1  inch  long, 

their  skin  brown  and  shining,  the  segments  showing  plainly.     They 

have  three  pairs  of  small,  dark  legs  close  to  the  front  end  of  the  body. 

The  whole  insect  looks 

tough  and  wiry. 

They  infest  a  variety 

of    field  and    garden 

crops,  working  on  or  in 

the  roots  or  tubers,  and 

are  especially  injurious 

to   corn   and   potatoes, 

though    they    attack 

freely  wheat,  oats,  and 

other  cereals. 

There    are    several 

species,   differing    in 

minor  characters  but  alike  in  general  appearance  and  manner  of  work. 

All  are  the  larvae  of  "  click  beetles,"  or  "  snapping  beetles."    Ordinarily 

they  breed  in  sod 
ground,  the  worms 
feeding  on  the  roots 
of  grasses.  In  such 
circumstances  their 
presence  is  seldom 
noted,    because    the 

Fig.  68.  — The  Wheat  Wireworm.    Enlarged  and  nat-      S^'O^nd     is     SO     W^ell 
ural  size.     Original.  filled  with  roots  that 

107 


Fig.  67.  —  Adult  of  the  Wheat  Wireworm,  Ayri- 
otes  mancus  Say.  Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


108 


PESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


Fig.  69.  —  A  common  wire- 
worm,  Melanotus  communis 
Gyll.     Original. 


Fig.  70.  —  Larva  and  pupa  of  Melan- 
otus comynunis  Gyll.     Original. 


their  work  does  not  attract  attention.  But  when  such  ground  is 
broken  up  and  planted  to  potatoes  or  corn,  the  worms  have  com- 
paratively little  to  feed 
on,  and  quickly  become 
a  pest.  They  are  slow 
in  development,  re- 
quiring two  years  or 
more  as  larvae,  so  that 
there  are  many  of  them 
remaining  the  follow- 
ing year  after  sod,  and 
often  many  the  second 
year. 

Suitable  crop  rota- 
tion, combined  with 
fall  plowing  and  culti- 
vation, is  the  only 
means  of  handling 
these  pests.  They  do 
not  injure  clover  or 
related  plants,  as  a  rule,  and  where  fields  are  badly  infested  it  is 
wise  to  put  one  of  the  legumes  into  the  rotation  following  sod.  No 
applications  to  the  soil  will  kill  the  worms  unless  made  so  strong  as 
also  to  kill  plant  life. 


Fig.  71.  —  Work  of  wireworms  in  potato.    Original. 


WIREWORMS   AND    GRUBS  INJURING    THE   ROOTS      109 


Fig.  72.  —  Adult    of    a    white    grub, 
Lachnostcrna  fusca  Froehl.    Original. 


White   Grubs  {Lachnosterna  spp.) 

The  presence  of  white  grubs  usually  is  first  indicated  by  the  dying 
off  of  plants  here  and  there  in  the  field  or  garden.  Corn,  and  various 
garden  crops  as  well  as  straw- 
berries, are  subject  to  marked 
injury. 

Examination  of  the  soil  beneath 
plants  attacked  will  disclose  the 
grubs.  They  will  be  found  lying 
somewhat  cm-led  up,  are  soft- 
bodied,  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  long,  and  have  a  brown 
head.  The  end  of  the  abdomen  is 
swollen  and  darkened. 

The  adults  are  brown,  heavy-bodied  beetles,  familiarly  known  as 
''  May  beetles  "  or  "  June  bugs."     They  fly  at  night,  feed  on  the  leaves 

of  various  trees,  and  are  attracted  to 
fights.  Eggs  are  laid  in  the  soil,  and 
about  two  years  are  required  for  the 
development  of  the  grub.  At  the  end 
of  the  second  summer  the  larva  makes 
a  pupal  cell  in  the  soil  at  a  depth  of  a 
foot  or  less,  and  transforms  to  the 
beetle ;  but  the  latter  is  soft-bodied  at 
first,  and  does  not  grow  hard  and  emerge 
until  the  following  spring.  Grass  land 
is  the  natural  breeding  place,  and  injury 
usuallj^  occurs  in  fields  that  have  been 
in  sod  for  a  number  of  years,  and  have  recently  been  broken  up 
for  other  crops. 

Careful  planning  of  crop  rotations  is  the  best  means  of  avoiding 
injury.  Fall  plowing  will  help  to  some  extent.  Chickens  following  the 
plow  will  destroy  the  grubs  turned  up.  Hogs  are  fond  of  white  grubs, 
and  will  root  up  and  eat  large  numbers  of  them.  There  is  no  chemical 
that  may  be  applied  to  the  soil  to  kill  them. 


Fig.  73.  —  Larva   of     Lachno- 
sterna fusca  Froehl.    Original. 


110  FESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 

Leather  Jackets  ( Tipulidce) 

Occasionally  field  crops,  such  as  wheat,  grasses,  or  clovers,  are 
seriously  injured  by  large  numbers  of  naked  grubs,  the  young  stages  of 
several  species  of  crane  flies  (Tipulidce).  The  adults  are  slender-bodied 
very  long-legged  insects,  often  known  as  "  gallinippers  "  or  "  giant 
mosquitoes."  The  grubs  are  an  inch  or  less  in  length,  dark  in  color, 
cylindrical,  tough,  the  hind  end  blunt.  They  work  just  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  'eating  the  roots,  traveling  from  plant  to  plant 
in  the  soil. 

The  grubs  are  half  grown  in  the  fall,  and  winter  in  a  dormant 
condition.  In  spring  growth  is  resumed.  The  adults  emerge  in  early 
summer,  and  prefer  fields  that  have  grown  up  to  tall  grasses  or  other 
herbage.  There  is  a  second  generation  in  summer,  the  adults  laying 
eggs  again  in  grassland  in  September. 

Plowing  before  September  1  will  place  the  field  in  such  condition  that 
the  adults  will  not  lay  eggs  in  it,  and  thus  protect  winter  wheat  from 
injury.  On  grass  or  clover  no  effective  means  of  avoiding  or  stopping 
attack  is  known,  except  plowing  up. 

Ants  {Formicina) 

Frequently  colonies  of  ants  of  one  kind  or  another  take  up  their  abode 
in  gardens,  and  prove  a  nuisance.  They  can  easily  be  killed  by  the 
use  of  carbon  bisulphide.  With  a  pointed  stick  make  several  holes  into 
the  hills,  and  then  pour  into  each  half  an  ounce  or  so  of  carbon  bisulphide, 
at  once  pressing  the  foot  on  the  earth  to  close  the  hole.  The  fumes  will 
penetrate  the  ground  and  kill  off  all  of  the  colony. 

In  some  sections  of  the  Gulf  states  and  in  parts  of  California  a  persist- 
ent and  destructive  ant  has  become  established :  the  so-called  Argen- 
tine Ant  {Iridomyrmex  hwnilis  Mayr).  It  is  a  nuisance  through  enter- 
ing dweUings,  and  frequently  is  destructive  in  gardens.  This  species 
tends  to  hunt  for  warm  quarters  as  winter  approaches.  Advantage  is 
taken  of  this  habit  by  providing  a  box  of  suitable  decaying  vegetable 
matter  in  the  garden,  preferably  a  mixture  of  cotton  seed  and  straw. 
As  this  material  decomposes  it  heats,  and  many  colonies  of  ants,  includ- 


SMALL    WORMS  BORING  IN   THE   ROOTS  111 

ing  the  overwintering  queens,  migrate  to  it.  The  whole  thing  is  then 
covered  with  canvas  and  fumigated  with  carbon  bisulphide.  Summer 
colonies  are  killed  by  fumigation  in  the  same  manner  as  described  above 
for  other  species,  or  by  poisoning  with  dilute  arsenic  and  sweetened 
water,  as  described  in  the  chapter  on  Household  Insects. 

The  Southern  Corn  Root-worm  {Diahrotica  duodecimpundata  0\W .) 

The  presence  of  the  southern  corn  root-worm  or  "  bud- worm  "  is 
usually  first  indicated  by  an  enfeebled  growth  of  the  young  plants. 
The  leaves  turn  yellow,  or  the  plant  simply  fails  to  make  a  normal, 
vigorous  growth.  If  a  plant  is  pulled  up  and  the  roots  are  shaken,  some 
of  the  grubs  will  likely  be  thrown  out,  and  the  round  holes  where  they 
have  bored  into  the  side  of  the  main  stalk,  just  below  the  ground,  will 
be  noted.  The  grubs  are  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  long  when  full 
grown,  are  quite  slender,  smooth,  white  or  light  yellow,  and  have  a 
small  brown  head. 

The  adult  of  this  worm  is  a  small  beetle,  about  one  fourth  of  an 
inch  long,  commonly  known  as  the  twelve-spotted  cucumber  beetle. 
It  is  greenish  yellow  in  color,  and  has  twelve  black  spots  on  its  back. 
It  feeds  on  the  pollen  or  silk  of  corn,  on  a  great  variety  of  garden 
crops,  especially  cucumbers,  squashes,  melons,  and  related  plants,  and 
sometimes  on  the  young  heads  of  various  grains  or  grasses. 

Control  of  the  root-worm  in  corn  is  largely  dependent  on  general 
farming  methods.  Crop  rotation  will  help  to  hold  it  in  check,  and  so 
will  systematic  clean  tillage.  The  worms  do  not  infest  the  roots  of 
cotton,  buckwheat,  or  the  smaller  grains.  Late-planted  corn  is  less 
liable  to  attack,  and  so  is  corn  in  well-drained  land.  Many  farmers 
find  it  expedient  to  plant  an  excess  of  seed.  Remedies  for  the  adults 
on  garden  crops  are  given  elsewhere. 

The  Western  Corn  Root-worm  (Diabrotica   longicornis   Say) 

In  the  Central  states  the  roots  of  corn  are  injured  by  a  small,  slender 
worm  which  mines  in  the  main  roots,  tunneling  here  and  there,  seriously 
checking  the  growth  of  the  plant  if  not  killing  it  entirely.     The  worm  is 


112 


PESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


Fig.  74.  —  The  Western  Corn  Root 
worm.  Adult.  Enlarged  and  natu 
ral  size.     Original. 


two  fifths  of  an  inch  long,  slender,  whitish  or  yellowish,  and  has  a 

black  or  brown  head. 

The  adult  is  a  small  beetle,  greenish  in  color,  one  fourth  of  an  inch  in 

length.  It  is 
found  occasion- 
ally on  melons 
or  squashes,  along 
with  its  relative, 
the  striped  cu- 
cumber beetle, 
but  is  more  apt 
to  be  seen  on  sun- 
flowers,  golden 
rod,  or  thistle 
blossoms. 
There  is  one  generation  each  year.    The  winter 

is  passed  as  eggs  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  simplest  means  of  control  is   crop  rotation. 

The  eggs  are  laid  only  in  cornfields  in  late  summer, 

and  the  larvae  are  injurious  only  to  corn.     If  corn 

is  planted  in  fields  that  have  been  in  other  crops,  it 

will  not  be  injured.     In  practice  it  is  usually  safe 

to  run  corn  two  years  in  succession,  changing  to  another  crop  the 

third  year. 

Corn-root  Webworms  (Crambus  spp.) 

Young  corn  plants  are  seriously  injured  or  killed  by  several  species 
of  webworms  feeding  on  the  roots,  or  on  the  stalk  close  to  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  The  outward  evidence  of  attack  is  the  stunted  growth  of 
the  corn  or  the  death  of  young  plants.  Injury  is  always  worse  in  ground 
just  broken  up  from  sod. 

The  same  insects  attack  in  similar  fashion  young  tobacco  plants  in 
certain  eastern  sections. 

Several  species  are  recorded,  all  in  the  genus  Crambus,  and  including 
C.  vulvivagellus  Clem.,  C.  luteolellus  Clem.,  C.  trisectus  Walk.,  and  C. 
mutabilis  Clem. 


Fig.  75.  —  Work 
of  the  West- 
ern Corn  Root- 
worm.  Origi- 
nal. 


WEB  WORMS  INJURING    THE   ROOTS 


113 


The  worms  feed  in  a  silk  tube  more  or  less  covered  with  par- 
ticles of  dirt.  They  vary  in  color  from  yellowish  to  brown, 
are  three  fourths  to  one  inch  long  when  full  grown,  and  their 
bodies  have  numerous  low  tubercles.  They  hatch  from  eggs 
laid   by   small,    active   moths  which  have    the  habit   of    resting   on 

grass  stems  with  their  wings  folded 
around  their  bodies.  The  natural  breed- 
ing place  is  grassland.  There  are  two 
generations  annually,  the  moths  of  the 
second  brood  appearing  in  the  latter 
part  of  summer.  Winter  is  passed  by 
the  half-grown  worms  in  the  soil. 


Fig.  70.  —  Larval  cu.se  of  Corn- 
root  Webworm  at  base  of  corn 
plant.     Original. 


Fig.  77.  —  Larval  cases  of  a  Corn-root 
Webworm,  Cramhus  vulvivagellus  Clem. 
Natural  size.  The  one  at  the  left  cut 
open  to  show  pupa  within.     Original. 


Fall  plowing  and  cultivation  will  help  to  hold  the  pests  in  check,  but 
to  avoid  injury  do  not  plant  corn  in  land  that  is  just  broken  up  from  sod. 
Land  that  is  fallowed  in  the  latter  part  of  summer  will  not  be  infested 
the  next  spring,  for  the  moths  will  not  lay  eggs  on  bare  ground. 

The  Corn  Root  Aphis  {Aphis  maidi-radicis  Forbes) 
Colonies  of  bluish  green  "  lice  "  suck  the  juices  from  the  roots  of 
corn,  and  in  certain  sections  feed  also  on  the  roots  of  other  plants,  in- 


114 


PESTS   OF-  GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


eluding  cotton,  squash,  pumpkin,  and  strawberries.  Plants  badly 
attacked  are  stunted,  lack  color,  and  otherwise  show  that  they  are  not 
making  a  healthy  growth.  Examination  of  the  roots  will  then  show 
large  numbers  of  the  lice. 

The  corn  root  aphis  is  cared  for,  and  is  dependent  on,  colonies  of  ants. 
The  latter  are  usually  the  common,  small,  brown  ants  of  the  species 
Lasius  niger  americanus  Mayr. 

In  winter  the  eggs  of  the  aphis  are  cared  for  by  these  ants,  who  keep 
them  in  their  nests,  bring  them  out  in  the  sunlight  on  warm  days  and 
carry  them  below  frost  line  when  the  weather  is  severe.     In  spring  the 

aphis  eggs  hatch,  and  the  j^oung  wingless 
lice  are  carried  by  the  ants  to  suitable 
weeds,  the  roots  of  which  will  form  ac- 
ceptable food  until  the  corn  has  sprouted. 
Thereafter  the  ants  are  in  constant  at- 
tendance on  the  lice,  transferring  them  to 
the  roots  of  corn  when  the  latter  become 
available. 

As  warm  weather  comes  on,  the  lice 
give  birth  to  a  second  generation  of  living 
young,  in  which  winged  individuals  ap- 
pear, and  these  migrate  to  new  fields. 
Breeding  goes  on  rapidly,  the  number 
of  generations  sometimes  reaching  a  dozen  in  the  course  of  the  sum- 
mer. In  the  fall  eggs  are  laid,  and  these  are  cared  for  again  by  the 
ants  until  another  season. 

In  control,  the  most  important  measure  is  to  plow  and  harrow  in  the 
fall,  so  as  to  break  up  the  nests  of  the  ants.  Keeping  the  fields  clean  of 
weeds  will  help  materially,  depriving  the  hce  of  food  in  the  spring. 
Rotation  is  of  value,  since  the  first  generation  of  the  hce  are  wingless 
and  by  the  time  winged  individuals  appear  corn  will  be  sufficiently 
advanced  to  withstand  attack  from  lice  that  fly  in  from  other  places. 
It  is  helpful,  also,  to  keep  corn  growing  vigorously. 


Fig.  78.  —  Larva  of  Crambus 
luteolellus  Clem.  Slightly  en- 
larged.    Original. 


PLANT  LICE   ATTACKING    THE   ROOTS 


115 


Fig.  79. 
Clem. 


-Adult  of    Crambus   luteolellus 
Slightly  enlarged.     Original. 


Plant  Lice  attacking  Beet  Roots 

In  Washington  and  Oregon  sugar  beets  sometimes  are  seriously 
infested  by  a  plant  louse  (Pemphigus  feete  Doane).  Affected  plants 
fail  to  make  normal  growth, 
look  sickly,  and  the  main  root 
grows  spongy.  The  lice  cluster 
on  the  smaller  rootlets.  There 
are  several  generations  in  the 
course  of  a  single  season,  and 
occasionally  winged  individuals 
appear  and  fly  to  other  fields. 
It  is  probable  that  the  species 
lives  normally  on  some  wild 
plant,  but  the  identity  of  this 
has  not  been  discovered. 

In  Colorado  another  species,  Tychea  brevicornis  Hart.,  has  wrought 
similar  injury. 

No  direct  means  of  control  is  known  for  either  of  these  pests. 

The  Sugar-cane  Mealy-bug  (Pseiiclococcus  calceolarice  Mask.) 

In  Louisiana  the  roots,  crown,  and  stalk  of  sugar  cane  are  attacked 
by  small,  degenerate  insects  which  work  in  clusters  made  conspicuous  by 
a  white,  cottony  secretion.     The  insect  itself  is  soft  bodied,  pink,  and 

wingless.  Only  the  males  are  winged, 
and  they  are  seldom  noticed. 

For  the  most  part  they  pass  the 
winter  on  seed  cane,  but  may  sur- 
vive also  on  Johnson  grass.  When 
the  seed  cane  is  planted  in  the 
spring,  the  young  are  transferred 
with  it  to   the  fields.     They   may 

hibernate  also  on  cane  stubble. 
Fig.  80. -The  common,  brown  ant.  .^    ^^^    ^^^^ 

Lasius    niger    americanus     Mayr.  i-v^kj^^o,^  kj  i 

Enlarged  and  natural  size.  Original,      move  towards  eradication,  combined 


116 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


with  washing  the  seed  cane  with  whale-oil  soap.     Remnants  of  cane  in 
the  fields,  and  Johnson  grass  in  or  near  by,  should  be  burned. 


The  Clover  Root-borer  {Hylastinus  obscurus  Marsh.) 
In  the  Central  states  clover  is  subject  to  considerable  injury  by  this 
insect,  the  presence  of  which  is  seldom  recognized.     The  adult  beetle 

is  small,  dark,  and  cylindrical. 
Coming  out  in  the  spring  from 
clover  roots,  in  which  it  has 
passed  the  winter,  it  lays  eggs 
in  shallow  cavities  which  it  ex- 
cavates in  the  sides  of  the  larger 
roots  of  clover  plants  in  the 
same  or  adjoining  fields.  The 
grubs  that  hatch  from  these  eggs 
burrow  in  and  through  the  roots, 


Fig.  81.— Work   of    the   Clover  Root- 
borer.     Original. 


Fig.  82.  —  Adult  of  the 
Clover  Root-borer.  En- 
larged and  natural  size. 
Original. 


sometimes  completely  destroying  their  central  parts  and  killing 
the  plant. 

In  the  latter  part  of  summer  the  grub  changes  to  a  pupa,  from  which  a 
beetle  emerges  in  fall,  but  remains  in  the  root  until  the  following  spring. 

Only  two-year-old  plants  are  likely  to  be  attacked.  Plowing  a  badly 
infested  field  at  once  after  haying  will  kill  many  of  the  grubs,  because 
the  roots  will  be  turned  up  and  dried  out.     Pasturing  a  field  serves  to 


\ORING   IN  MAIN   ROOT-STALK   OR    TUBER 


117 


check  injury  or  to  prevent  it.     Clover,  if  infested,  should  not  be  aUowed 
to  stand  after  the  second  season's  haying. 

The  Sweet  Potato  Root-borer  {Cylas  formicarius  Oliv.) 
In  some  sections  in  the  Gulf  states  the  tubers  of  sweet  potatoes,  both 
in  the  field  and  in  storage,  are  infested  with  borers,  whitish  in  color, 
robust,  one  fourth  of  an  inch  long.  The  adult  is  a  small  snout  beetle 
with  dark  blue  wing  covers  and  brown  thorax.  It  lays  its  eggs  m  the 
end  of  the  tuber  where  it  chances  to  project  from  the  ground,  or  some- 
times at  the  base  of  the  vine.  There  are  several  generations  annually. 
Eggs  may  be  laid  on  potatoes  in  storage. 

The  only  means  of  control  is  to  keep  the  tubers  well  covered  with 
earth.  If  infested,  the  crop  should  be  harvested  early  and  at  once 
fumigated  with  carbon  bisulphide. 

The  Potato-tuber  Worm  {Phthorimcea  operculellaZeW.) 
In  California  this  tiny  insect  is  a  pest  of  prime  importance  to  potato 
growers.     Injury  is  twofold.     The  stalks  of  potato  vines  are  tunneled, 
the  vines  badly  damaged  or  killed;    and  the  tubers  themselves  are 


FiQ.  ^3.  _  Adult  of  the  Potato-tuber  Worm.     Enlarged 
and  natural  size.     Original. 


118 


PESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


attacked,  both  in  the  field  and  in  storage.  The  worm  is  quite  small, 
only  one  fourth  of  an  inch  long.  Eggs  are  laid  on  the  vine  by  the 
parent  moth,  the  grub  tunneling  down  just  beneath  the  skin  of  the  stalk. 
Or  eggs  may  be  laid  on  potatoes  that  are  not  entirely  covered  with 
earth.     Further  damage  goes  on  after  the  potatoes  are  dug. 

^-j  Control  consists  in  cleaning  up  related 

weeds,  prompt  removal  of  wilting  vines, 
jP  destruction  of  the  vines  after  digging,  and 

immediate  sorting  and  fumigation  of  the 

tubers. 

The  Cabbage-maggot     {Pegomya  brassicoe 
Bouche) 

The  roots  of  cabbage,  cauliflow^er,  turnip, 
and  radish  are  seriously  injured  or  destroyed 


Fig.  84.— Work  of  the  Cab- 
bage-maggot.    Original. 


Fig.   85.  —  Cabbage-maggots    on    cabbage 
root.     Enlarged.    Original. 


MAGGOTS    ATTACKING    THE   ROOTS 


119 


Fig.  87.  —  Work  of  the  Cabbage-maggot 
in  radishes.     Original. 


Fig.  86.  —  Adult  of  the  Cabbage- 
maggot.  Enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original. 

by  soft,  whitish  maggots,  one 
fourth  of  an  inch  long.  When 
working  on  cabbage,  the  mag- 
gots eat  away  the  root  hairs  and 
gnaw  into  the  larger  root.  Their 
work  is  accompanied  often  by 
more  or  less  decay  of  the  tissue. 

When  working  on  radishes,  they  frequently  tunnel  entirely  within 
and  through  the  fleshy  main  root,  or  cause  injury  of  such  a 
nature  that  a  much-branched  root  is  developed  instead  of  a 
single,  sjTnmetrical  tap  root. 

A  hairy,  two-winged  fly  is  the  parent  of  the  maggots.     Eggs  are 

laid  on  the  ground 
near  the  stem,  or  on 
the  stem  itself,  and 
the  young  maggots 
make  their  way  into 
the  ground  along  the 
outside  of  the  stem. 

T7      u^      ^    y ,        ..■      u  1^1  There  are  two  to  four 

Fig.  88.  —  Tool  for  cutting  hexagonal  disks. 

Original.  generations  annually. 


120 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


In  the  fall  eggs,  larvse,   and   adults   may   be   found   in  old   cabbage 
stumps.  • 

The  maggots  may  be  killed  by  pouring  around  each  plant  a  half  cup  of 
carboUc  acid  emulsion.  A  pointed  stick  may  be  thrust  diagonally 
beneath  each  plant  and  a  teaspoonful  of  carbon  bisulphide  poured 
down  the  hole. 

The  maggots  may  be  prevented  from  gaining  access  to  the  roots  by 
fitting  a  disk  of  tarred  paper  around  the  stem  of  each  plant.     The  disks 

should  be  about  four  inches  in  di- 
ameter, slit  to  the  center,  and  marked 
with  short  cross  cuts  at  this  point,  so 
that  they  may  be  fitted  closely  and 
easily  around  the  stem.  When  in 
place,  the  disks  rest  flat  on  the  ground. 
A  handy  tool  for  cutting  hexagonal  disks 
in  quantity  is  illustrated.  After  the 
first  row  of  cuts  has  been  made  across 
a  sheet  of  cardboard  each  additional 
cut  wdll  make  one  disk. 

It  is  of  importance  to  clean  up  all 
old  cabbage  stumps  in  the  fall.  Deep 
plowing  will  reduce  the  number  of  the 
flies  the  succeeding  year.  Rotation  of 
crops  is  desirable.  Abundant  fertil- 
ization will  help  cabbages  to  withstand 
attack. 

The  Onion  Maggot   {Phorbia  cepetorum 
Meade) 
Infestation  by  the  onion  maggot  is 
similar  to  that  of   the  related  species 
working  on  the  roots  of  cabbage  and 
radish.     The  eggs  are  laid  by  the  adult 
Fig.  89.  — Work  of   the   Onion      %  in  the  leaf  sheaths,  and  the  mag- 
Maggot.    Original.  gots   work  their  way  down  into  the 


MAGGOTS  ATTACKING    THE  BOOTS 


121 


Fig.   90.  —  Adult  of   the  Onion  Maggot. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 

bulb.     There  are  two  to  four  gener- 
ations each  year. 

Practical  means  of  direct  control 
are  wanting.  Onions  should  be 
planted  each  season  in  fields  as  far 
removed  from  the  previous  season's 
planting  as  may  be.  In  small  plots 
carbolic  acid  emulsion  may  be  used. 
Liberal  amounts  of  tobacco  dust 
along  the  rows  will  act  as  a  fair 
deterrent. 

The  Barred-winged  Onion  Maggot 
{Choetopsis  cenea  Wicd.)  is  a  similar 

species  found  on  onions,  and  sometimes    on  the  roots  of  corn  and 
sugar  cane.     The  Ufe  history  and  the  remedies  are  similar. 

The  Seed-corn  Maggot  {Pegomya  fusdceps  Zett.) 

This  insect  sometimes  works  on  sprouting  sweet  corn,  but  is  rather 
a  pest  of  beans  and  peas.  It  is  a  white,  soft-bodied  maggot,  without 
legs,  and  works  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  eating  into  and 
destroying  newly  planted  peas  or  beans,  especially  just  as  the  tender 


Fig.  91.— Work  of  the  Seed-corn 
Maggot  on  the  roots  of  beans. 
Original. 


122 


PESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


Fig.  92.  —  The  Seed-corn  Maggot. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.  Orig- 
inal. 


sprouts  are  pushing  above  the 
ground.  A  later  generation  works 
in  similar  fashion.  The  adult  is 
a  two-winged  fly. 

The  appUcation  of  carbolic  acid 
emulsion  is  the  only  direct  remedy 
available.  Injury  is  apt  to  be 
worse  when  manure  has  been  ap- 
phed  to  the  fields  in  the  spring, 
probably  because  it  attracts  the 
adult  flies  or  offers  them  shelter. 


The  Carrot  Rust-fly  {Psila  rosce  Fab.) 

The  leaves  of  the  plants  attacked  turn  red  or  rusty  looking,  while  the 
roots  are  tunneled  by  small  brown  maggots,  one  fourth  of  an  inch  long. 


Fig.  93.  —  Work  of  the  Carrot  Rust-fly.     Original. 


On  the  surface  the  root  may  not  show  much  evidence  of  injury,  but 
when  it  is  cut  through,  the  brown  burrows  wiU  be  evident.  Occa- 
sionally celery  is  attacked  by  the  same  species. 

The  adult  is  a  slender-bodied,  two-winged  fly.  There  is  one  genera- 
tion annually  in  the  field,  but  breeding  may  at  times  go  on  in  carrots 
in  storage. 


BEETLES  BORING  IN  MAIN  STALK 


123 


Fig.  94.  — Adult   of   the    Carrot    Rust-fly.     En- 
larged and  natural  size.     Original. 

The   Sugar-cane   Beetle   {Ligyrus  rugiceps 
Lee.) 

The  stubble  and  stalks  of  sugar  cane, 
and  the  stalks  of  corn,  are  burrowed 
into  below  the  ground  by  a  chunky,  black 
beetle,  about  half  an  inch  long,  with 
stout,  coarsely  spined  legs.  Corn  is 
usually  killed,  while  cane  may  partly  re- 
cover and  make  some  growth,  though 
the  yield  will  be  short.  The  injury  takes 
place  for  the  most  part  early  in  the 
growing  sea- 
son. 

Eggs  are 
laid  in  the 
ground  on  the 
weakened  or 
decaying 
Fig.  96.  — The    Sugar-cane     roots.         The 


Carrots  planted 
late  escape  serious 
injury.  Direct 
measures  of  con- 
trol are  the  same 
as  for  the  onion 
maggot.  Freshly 
manured  fields 
should  be  avoided. 


Beetle.    Original. 


a  r  V  a     is     a 


Fig.  95.  —  Work  of  the  Sugar- 
cane Beetle.    Original. 


124 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


fleshy  grub.     There  is  one   generation   annually.     The   insect   hiber- 
nates in  the  soil  in  cane  fields. 

Planting  of  cane  should  be  deferred  until  spring  in  order  to  have 
opportunity  of  spring  plowing  and  cultivation.  The  running  of 
second  or  third  year  cane  should  be  avoided.  Trash  should  be  cleaned 
up  in  the  fall.     Corn  should  not  follow  cane. 


The  Carrot  Beetle  {Ligyrus  gibbosus  De  G.) 

The  roots  of  carrot,  celery,  parsnips,   sugar  beets,  potatoes,  and 
corn  are  eater  into  by  a  beetle,  which  works  usually  just  below  the 
surface  of   the   ground.     The 
insect  is  black  above,  reddish 


Fig. 


97.— The  Carrot  Beetle. 
Original. 


Fig.  98.- 


-Work  of  the  Carrot  Beetle. 
Original. 


beneath,  and  about  half  an  inch  long.  There  is  one  generation  a 
year.  The  adults  come  out  in  the  latter  part  of  summer,  and  over- 
winter in  the  soil.     Damage  may  occur  either  in  fall  or  in  spring. 

Removal  of  crop  remnants,  fall  plowing 
and  cultivation,  and  similar  cultural  meas- 
ures are  advised. 


The  Slender  Seed-corn  Ground-beetle 

{Clivina  impressifrons  Lee.) 

Seed  corn  planted  in  low  or  peaty  ground 
sometimes  is  injured  or  destroyed  by  a 
small  beetle  which  eats  out  the  heart  of 
the  sprouting  kernels.     The  insect  is  a  little 


Fig.  99.  — The  Seed-corn 
Agonoderus.  Enlarged  to 
twice  natural  size.  Orig- 
inal. 


WORMS  BORING  IN  MAIN  STALK 


125 


less  than  a  half  inch  long,  dark  red,  somewhat  flattened,  and  has  a 
large  thorax  and  a  fairly  narrow  "  waist." 

The  pest  passes  the  winter  as  an  adult  beetle  in  the  ground.  The 
larva)  are  found  throughout  summer  in  the  ground,  and  are  very 
active,  attacking  other  insects. 

Since  only  wet  ground  is  chosen  by  this  insect,  corn  should  be  omitted 
from  such  fields  if  possible.  Late  planting  apparently  serves  to  dis- 
courage the  beetles,  and  to  ward  off  most  of  the  injury. 

Occasionally  similar  damage  is  done  by  another  ground  beetle, 
Agonoderus  pallipes  Fab.  It  is  a  black,  oblong  beetle,  one  fourth  of  an 
inch  long,  and  destroys  corn  by  eating  out  the  germ  end.  No  direct 
remedial  measures  have  been  devised. 

The  Corn-stalk  Borer  (Diatrcea  zeacolella  Dyar) 

In  both  Northern  and  Southern  states  field  corn  is  subject  to  serious 
injury  by  a  borer,  the  immature  stage  of  a  moth,  closely  related  to 


Fig.  100.  —  Work  of  the  Sugar-cane  Borer.     Original. 


126 


PESTS    OF    GARDEN  AND    FIELD    CROPS 


the  sugar-cane  borer.  In  early  summer,  the  tender  unfolding  leaves 
are  found  riddled,  and  often  the  central  part  destroyed,  so  that  growth 
is  aborted.  In  midsummer  a  new  generation  of  borers  works  in  the 
pith  of  the  lower  stalks,  making  numerous  channels,  often  causing 
the  stalk  to   break  down  in  strong  winds. 

The  first  lot  of  moths  are  out  early  in  the  growing  season,  and  lay 
eggs  on  the  young  leaves.  In  the  fall  the  larva  of  the  second  brood 
burrows  down  into  the  base  of  the  stalk,  where  it  spends  the  winter. 

Control  measures  consist  in  the  removal  and  destruction  of  all 
stalks  left  in  the  field  in  fall.  If  the  stalks  are  short,  they  may  be 
plowed  under  deeply.     Rotation  of  crops  will  help  in  control. 


The  Sugar-cane  Borer  {Diatrcea  saccharalis  Fab.) 

The  work  of  this  borer  in  sugar  cane  is  similar  to  that  of  the  related 
species  in  corn.     The  larvae  destroy  the  buds  or  "  eyes  "  by  entering 

the  stalk  through  them,  stunting  the 
growth  of  the  young  plants,  and  their 
burrows  so  weaken  the  main  stalks  that 
the  plants  break  off  in  strong  winds.  In 
addition  the  sugar  content  is  seriously 
lowered. 

Eggs  are  laid  on  the  leaves,  and  the 
larvae  feed  for  a  short  time  in  the  upper 
whorls,  but  soon  enter  the  cane.  Pu- 
pation takes  place  within  the  stalk.  There 
may  be  several  broods  annually.  Winter 
is  passed  as  larva  or  pupa  within  the  cane, 
and  emergence  of  adults  begins  early  in 
the  spring. 

Control  is  difficult.  All  tops  and  trash 
should  be  spread  out  to  dry,  and  burned  as  soon  as  possible.  Infested 
cane  around  sheds  and  refineries  should  be  destroyed.  Shoots  and 
suckers  from  the  stubble  of  early  cut  cane  should  be  cut  off,  so  as 
to  cause  the  death  of  the  young  borers  within  that  otherwise  would 
hibernate. 


Fig.    101.  —  Adult      of     the 
Sugar-cane  Borer.  Original. 


SMALL    WORMS   IN   STALK    OR   STEM  ABOVE    GROUND      127 


The  Smaller  Corn  Stalk-borer  (Elasmopalpus  lignosellus  Zell.) 
The  stalks  of  corn,  peas,  peanuts,  and   possibly   other  plants  are 
attacked  by  a  small  cylindrical  worm,  half  an  inch  long  when  full 


Fig.  102.  —  Larvieofthe 
Smaller  Corn  Stalk- 
borer.     Original. 


Fig. 


103.  — Adult  of  the  Smaller  Corn 
Stalk-borer.     Original. 


grown,  hght  greenish  in  color,  its  back  marked  with  nine  fine,  reddish 
lines,  somewhat  interrupted  at  each  segment.  It  works  within  the 
stalk,  but  makes  three  or  four  holes  to  the  surface,  here  and  there, 
through  which  it  pushes  out  excrement. 

The  adult  moth  expands  three  quarters  of  an  inch.     Hibernation 

may  take  place  as  adult,  as  larva  in  the  stalks,  or  as  pupa  in  the  ground. 

The  means  of  control  include  rotation  of  crops,  prompt  destruction 

of  the  remnants  of  infested  stalks,  and  fall  plowing 

and  cultivation. 


The  Clover  Stem-borer  {Languria  mozardi  Latr.) 

Tiny  grubs  are 
found  boring  inside 
the  stems  of  clover. 
They  are  the  larvae  of 
a  beetle,  one  third 
of  an  inch  long,  with 
dark  blue  wing  covers 
and  a  red  head  and 
thorax.  Where  clover 
is    regularly    mowed 


Fig.  1U4.  —  Work 
of  the  Clover 
S  t  e  m-b  o  r  e  r . 
Original. 


Fig.  105.  —  Adult  of  the  Clover 
Stem-borer.  Enlarged  and  natu- 
ral size.     Original. 


128 


PESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


or  pastured,  the  pest  is  never  abundant  enough  to  demand  special 

treatment. 

Bill-bugs  (Sphejiophorus  spp.) 

Bill-bugs  are  small,  dark  snout  beetles,  one  fourth  to  three  fourths 
of  an  inch  long.     Their  serious  injury  is  to  young  corn,  and  varies 

somewhat  according  to  the  species 
at  work. 


Fig.  107.  —  A  Bill-bug,   Sphenophorus 
costipennis  Horn.    Original. 

The  Maize  Bill-bug  {Spheno- 
phorus maidis  Chittn.)  injures  corn, 
both  in  its  larval  stage  as  a  grub 
burrowing  in  the  lower  part  of 
the   stalk   and    the   taproot,  and 


Fig.  106.  —  Work  of  Bill-bugs. 
Original. 


Fig.  108.  —  A  Bill-bug,  Sphenophorus 
zece  Walsh.     Original. 


as  an  adult  beetle,  later  in  the  summer.  Infested  corn  looks 
untlirifty,  is  stunted,  and  later  the  stalks  are  distorted  and  twisted. 
If  a  stalk  is  cut  open,  the  burrow  of  the  grub  will  be  found  in 
its  lower  part,  and  up  to  August  the  grub  itself  will  be  found, 
a  small,  thickset  larva  with  a  black  head.  By  September  the  adult 
beetle,  black,  two  fifths  to  three  fifths  of  an  inch  long,  will  be  found  in 


GRUBS    OR   MAGGOTS   INJURING   STALK   OR   STEM        129 

the  lower  part  of  the  burrow,  about  the  level  of  the  crown.  The  beetles 
hibernate  in  this  position,  in  the  uncut  part  of  the  stalk.  Control 
of  this  species  is  secured  by  removal  and  destruction  of  the  corn 
stubble,  taking  care  to  get  the  lowx^  part  of  the  plant  with  the  remnant 
of  stalk. 

Other  species  injure  corn  only  as  adults.  Cavities  are  eaten  in 
the  stalk  or  through  the  crown,  the  punctures  showing  as  the  leaves 
unfold.  One  of  these  species  passes  its  larval  life  as  a  grub  in  the  bulb 
of  timothy;  another  in  wild  sedges  growing  in  wet  ground.  With 
these,  to  avoid  injur j^  it  is  necessar}^  to  refrain  from  planting  corn  on 
recently  drained  ground.     If  possible,  such  lands  should  be  burned 


The  Western  Grass-stem  Sawfly  {Cephus  occidentalis  Riley  and 

Marlatt) 

In  the  northwest,  in  recent  years,  wheat  has  been  injured  by  the 
work  of  a  grub  that  bores  in  the  stem,  causing  the  kernels  to  dwarf, 
and  often  causing  the  stem  to  break  over  close  to  the  ground.  The 
larva  is  three  fourths  of  an  inch  long,  yellowish  white.  The  adult  is  a 
four- winged  sawfly,  its  abdomen  banded  with  yellow. 

Eggs  are  laid  just  below  the  head  of  the  grain  attacked.  The  grub 
bores  down  within  the  stem,  girdles  it  from  the  inside  not  far  above 
the  ground,  and  remains  below  the  girdle  until  the  following  spring, 
when  the  adults  emerge.  The  native  food  plants  are  quack  grass, 
wheat  grass,  brome  grass,  rye  grass,  and  timothy. 

Remedial  measures  consist  in  keeping  down  the  growth  of  native 
grasses  around  wheat,  and  in  plowing  the  stubble  in  fall  or  early 
spring  so  as  to  kill  the  insects  liiding  within  it  or  prevent  emergence 
of  the  adults. 

The  Joint-worm  {Isosoma  tritici  Fitch) 

The  presence  of  joint- worm  in  wheat  is  nearly  always  accompanied 

by  distortions  or  enlargements  of  the  stem  at  the  point  where   the 

grub  is  at  work.     Such  parts  become  hardened,  and  are  apt  to  come 

out  with  the  grain  at  threshing.     The  heads  of  badly  infested  plants 


130 


PESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


usually  are  stunted  and  give  a  reduced  yield,  and  the  straw  tends  to 
break  down. 

The  adult  of  the  grub  that  does  this  mischief  is  a  small,  black, 
four-winged     fly.        It    lays     its     eggs    in    the    standing    stem     of 

wheat  in  May  or  June  in  the  uppermost  joint 

available.     Several   larvae   may  develop    within 

a  single  stem.     The  larva  remains  in  the  straw 

until  the  following  spring. 

In  control  cut  the  straw  as  low  as  possible,  so 

as  not  to  leave  many  larvae  in  the  field.    Infested 

straw  not  used  up   by  April  1  may  be  burned, 
f  I  j  but   usually  not   many  adults   issue   from   dry, 

^  !  well-made  straw  stacks.     The  best  measure  is  to 

K     ■  burn  the  stubble  in  the  field.     Where  clover  is 

K  growing  in  the  stubble,  it  is  possible  to  choose 

1  a   time   in   winter   or   spring   when    the    clover 

I  has  been  frozen  down,  and  will  not  be  injured. 

I     ;i  Rotation  should  be 

I     •^'  practiced,  and  wheat 

kept  growing  vigor- 
ously so  that  it  may 

be  well  along  by  the 

time  the  adults  come 

out  to  lay  their  eggs. 

In  such  plants  the 

larvae  will  cause  less 

loss  in  yield  than  in 

backward   or   weak 

plants. 


Fig.  109.  —  The 
Joint-worm.  Larva 
and  work.  En- 
larged.    Original. 


Fig.  110. —  The  Joint-worm. 
Adult.  Enlarged  and  natu- 
ral size.     Original. 


A  closely  related 
species,  Isosoma   hordei  Harr.,  attacks  the  stems  of  barley,  causing 
a  distortion  of   the  stem  at  the  point  of  injury,  and  more  or  less 
reduction  in  yield,  as  in  the  case  of   the   species  infesting  wheat. 
The  recommendations  for  control  are  the  same. 


GRUBS    OR   MAGGOTS  INJURING   STALK   OR   STEM        131 


The  Wheat  Straw-worm  {Isosoma  grande  Riley) 
In  the  wheat  growing  regions  west  of  the  Mississippi  this  insect 
causes   much  damage.     Its   work  is   of  two   types.     Overwintering, 
mostly  wingless  adults  lay  eggs  in  April 
in  the  tender  tissues  of  young  wheat  plants. 
The  grubs  that  hatch  from  these  feed  in 

the   crown  of   the    plant, 

practically    destroying    it 

so    that    growth    stops. 

After    a    pupal    stage    a 

second  generation  of  adults 

in    late    May    or    June 

emerges.  These  are  winged, 

and    are   apt    to   disperse 

rather  widely.    The  female 

lays    eggs    in    the    wheat 

stem,  below  the  head  and 

just   above   the    youngest 

joint  that   is  not  covered 

with  a  sheath  of   leaves. 

Larvae  hatching  from  these 

eggs  feed  in  the  stem,  and 

remain  in  the  straw  until 

the  next   season.      The 

plant  attacked  will  mature 

a   head,    but    the   kernels 

are  apt  to  be  small. 
Rotation  is  important  because  it  will  prevent  damage  by  the  first, 
wingless    generation,    which    causes    the   more    serious    injury.     The 
overwintering  larva  can  be  killed  by  burning  or  otherwise  disposing 
of  the  straw  and  stubble. 


Fig.  111.— 
Work  of  Iso- 
soma hordei. 
Original. 


Fig.  112. —  Work  of  the 
Wheat  Straw-worm.  Orig- 
inal. 


The  Wheat-stem  Maggot  (Meromyzn  americana  Fitch) 
The  evidence  of  the  presence  of  the  wheat-stem  maggot  is  a  char- 
acteristic blanching  of  the  heads  of  wheat,  rye,  oats,  or  other  small 


132 


PESTS    OF    GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


grains  here  and  there  in  a  green,  growing  field.  Often  the  stem  below 
the  head  will  be  somewhat  shriveled  or  discolored.  A  tiny  maggot  may 
be  found  within  the  stem.     The  adult  is  a  small  fly  with  a  striped  body. 

The  first  generation  of 
flies  emerge  in  early  sum- 
mer from  the  3"oung  plants. 
Their  offspring  are  the  brood 
of  maggots  that  cause  the 
blanched  heads. 

The  adults  of  these  mag- 
gots emerge  after  normal 
threshing  time,  and  there 
follows  a  midsummer  gen- 
eration on  volunteer  grain 
or  wild  grasses.  Adults 
from  these  lay  eggs  on  fall 
wheat  or  native  grasses,  and 
the  maggots  from  these  sur- 
\ive  the  winter,  completing 
growth  in  the  spring.  On 
fall  wheat  they  injure  the 
base  of  the  plant. 

Prompt  threshing  and 
stacking  will  kill  many  of 
the  insects  in  the  ripe  straw, 
and  bury  the  survivors  in 
the  stack  where  the  flies  can- 
not get  out  to  go  through 
Late  sowing  of  fall  wheat 


Fig.  113.- 
enlarged, 


-The  Wheat-stem  Maggot.    Adult, 
and  work,  natural  size.     Original. 


the  midsummer  generation  on  grasses, 
probably  will  help  to  some  extent. 


The  Stalk  Borer  {Papaipema  nitela  Guen.) 

The  stalks  of  many  kinds  of  plants,  such  as  tomato,  corn,  oats, 
barley,  and  others,  are  attacked  by  a  worm  which  bores  into  them 
from  without,  feeds  within,  and  frequently  bores  out  again,  moving 


CATERPILLAR   BORING   IN  MAIN   STEM 


133 


1 


to  a  ncighl)oring  stalk.  The  entrance  and 
often  the  exit  holes  of  the  worms  are  evi- 
dent,  together  ^^^th  castings  thrown  out 


Fig.    115.  —  Stem   cut   open,    showing   larva  of 
Stalk  Borer  at  work.     Original. 

of  the  burrow,  and  the  plant  often  wilts 
bej'ond  the  point  of  attack. 
The  full-grown  larva  measures  about  an 


Fig.     114.— Work    of     the 
Stalk  Borer.     Original. 


Fig.  1  1G.  —  Adult  of  the  Stalk  Borer.     Original. 


inch  in  length.  It  is  marked  with  five  longitudinal  stripes,  but  those 
on  its  sides  are  broken  and  wanting  from  the  third  to  the  seventh 
segments.  The  adult  is  a  gray  moth.  Eggs  are  laid  in  the  fall  on 
the  ground  near  suitable  food  plants,  and  hatch  the  next  spring. 


134 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


Certain  weeds,  especially  burdock  and  ragweed,  are  the  native 
food  plants.  Control  consists  in  cutting  and  promptly  destroying 
such  weeds  in  or  near  the  crops  or  plants  attacked.  The  only  direct 
measures  feasible  are  removal  of  infested  stalks  as  soon  as  the  presence 
of  the  borers  is  discovered. 


Fig,  117.  —  Work  of  the  Squash  Borer.     Original. 


The  Squash  Borer  (Melittia  satyriniformis  Hbn.) 
Whitish,  fleshy  grubs,  about  an  inch  long  when  full  grown,  bore 
in  the  stems  of  squashes  and  sometimes  pumpkins  or  melons,  often 


Fig.  118. — Larva  of  the  Squash  Borer 
in  stem  of  plant.  Slightly  enlarged. 
Original. 


Fig.  119.  —  Cocoon  and 
empty  pupal  shell  of  the 
Squash  Borer.     Original. 


killing  the  part  of  the  plant  beyond  them.     Yellowish  excrement  will 
be  found  beneath  the  stem  at  the  points  where  they  are  at  work. 


WHITISH  GRUBS   BORING   IN    THE   STALK 


135 


Fig. 


120.— Adult  of  the  Squash  Borer. 
Slightly  enlarged.     Original. 


varieties 
are  planted 
as  traps, 

the  moths  will  lay  on  them  rather  than  on  winter 
varieties.  All  \'ines  should  be  gathered  and 
burned  as  soon  as  mature.  Fall  cultivation 
followed  by  deep  spring  plowing  will  kill  many 
of  the  larvae  in  the  soil  or  prevent  the  moths 
from  emerging.  Moist  earth  drawn  over  the 
vines  at  joints  will  induce  the  formation  of  ad- 
ditional roots,  enabling  the  plant  to  withstand 
attack.  The  \ine  may  be  slit  and  the  borers 
removed. 

The  Potato  Stalk-borer  (Trichobaris trinotataSsiy) 

The  potato  stalk-borer  is  a  small,  yellowish- 
white  grub,  half  an  inch  long,  which  bores  in  the 


Eggs  are  laid  on  the  vines 
by  the  adults  in  early  summer. 
The  parent  is  a  handsome  moth. 
There  is  one  generation  in  the 
north,  but  usually  two  in  the 
south.  The  larva  enters  the 
ground  to  pass  the  winter. 

If    earlv  _ 


Fig.  122.  —  Adult  of  the  Potato  Stalk-horcr. 
and  natural  size.     Original. 


Fig.    121.  — Work    of 
Enlarged        the    Potato     Stalk- 
borer.     Original. 


136 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


stalks  of  potato  plants,  frequently  killing  the  vines.  Its  work  is 
evident  usually  in  midsummer.  The  adult  is  a  gray  snout  beetle, 
with  three  black  spots  at  the  hind  end  of  its  thorax.  It  lays  eggs 
just  under  the  surface  of  the  vines,  and  the  grubs  work  beyond 
the  reach  of  poison.  Fortmiately,  the  adults  remain  in  the  stalks 
over  winter,  and  the  pest  is  easily  checked  for  the  next  season  by 
removing  and  destrr^ying  the  vines  as  soon  as  the  crop  of  potatoes 
is  harvested.     Neighboring  weeds  also  should  be  destroyed. 


The  Lima  Bean  Stem-borer  {Monoptilota  nuhilella  Hulst) 

In  a  few  sections  in  the  South 
the  stalks  of  lima  beans  are  at- 
tacked by  a  borer,  wliich  bur- 
rows inside  and  causes  the  for- 
mation of  characteristic  galls. 
The  worm  is  bluish  green,  and 
nearly  an  inch  long  when  full 
grown.  There  are  probably  two 
generations  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  insect's  range. 

Winter  is  passed  as  larva  or 
pupa  in  the  soil.  Fall  plowing 
and  cultivation  will  help  to  sup- 
press the  insect.  If  stems  show- 
ing the  galls  of  the  first  genera- 
tion are  removed  and  destroyed, 
the  numbers  of  the  second  gen- 
eration should  be  materially 
reduced. 


The  Hop-plant  Borer  ( Hydrce- 
cia  immanis  Grt.) 

The  hop-plant  borer  feeds  at 
three  different  points  in  or  on 
the  vines  in  the  course  of  its 


Fig.  123.  — Work  of 
the  Lima  Bean 
Stem-borer.  Orig- 
inal. 


Fig.  124.  — Work 
of  the  Hop-plant 
Borer.    Original. 


GRUBS  BORING  IN  STALK   OR   STEM 


137 


Fig.  125.  —  Adult  of  the  Hop-plant 
Borer.     Original. 


existence.     Early   in   the   season   it   bores   inside   the   growing   tips, 

causing   them   to   turn   down.     It    is   now   a   slender   green   worm, 

marked  with  black  dots.     Soon  it  drops  from  the  tips,  enters  the 

vine  near  the  ground,  and  bores  within  at  this  point.     At  this  stage 

it  is  reddish  in  color,  dotted  with 

black,  and  three  fourths  to  an 

inch   in   length.     After   two   or 

three  weeks,  it  bores  down  and 

out,     and    feeds     beneath    the 

ground,  just  above  the  old  roots, 

sometimes  nearly  cutting  the  \ane 

off.     It    now    reaches    a    length 

of  two  inches,  is  thick  bodied, 

whitish,  and  marked  with  fine 

brown  dots. 

A  pupal  stage  is  passed  in  the  soil.  Some  of  the  adults  emerge  in 
the  fall  and  some  in  the  spring. 

Tips  showing  the  work  of  the  earlier  stage  should  be  pinched  off 
and  destroyed.  The  grubs  working  in  the  soil  may  be  driven  deeper 
to  the  old  roots  b}^  pulling  away  the  dirt  for  a  few  days,  later  heaping 
ashes  around  the  vines.     On  the  old  roots  they  will  do  little  damage. 

The  Cabbage  Curculio  {Ceutorhyncus  rapce  Gyll.) 

A  small  snout  beetle  appears  on  cabbage  plants  early  in  the  season,  us- 
ually wliile  the  plants  are  still  in  the  seed  bed.  The  beetle  is  one  eighth 
of  an  inch  long  and  varies  in  color  from  gray  to  black.  Its  body  is  quite 
broad.  Eggs  are  laid  in  the  stalks,  and  a  whitish  grub  tunnels 
witliin.  Infested  plants  may  droop  over  in  their  upper  half,  or  break 
off  in  transplanting.  The  grub  is  full  grown  in  three  weeks,  trans- 
forms in  the  soil,  and  the  adults  emerge  a  week  later,  disappearing 
after  a  few  days.     There  is  one  generation  annually. 

Various  wild  plants,  especially  hedge  mustard  and  wild  pepper- 
grass,  are  native  food  plants  and  are  preferred  to  cabbage.  Use  may 
be  made  of  these  as  traps,  destroying  them  as  soon  as  the  beetles  have 
laid  their  eggs  in  them.     An  appUcation  of  arsenate  of   lead  or  Paris 


138 


PESTS   OF   GARDEN   AND   FIELD    CROPS 


green  to  the  cabbages  in  the  seed  bed  Ukely  will  serve  to  poison  enough 
of  the  adult  beetles  to  reduce  injury  by  the  grubs. 


The  Asparagus  Miner  {Agromyza  simplex  Loew) 
Irregular  mines  are  made  just  beneath  the  outer  skin  of  asparagus 
stems.     Frequently  the  surface  will  become  ruptured  and  turn  back, 
and  beneath  may  be   seen  the  tiny  brown  puparium,  looking  like  a 

flaxseed.  The  larva  which  causes  the 
injury  is  a  footless  maggot  one  fifth  of 
an  inch  long,  white,  tapering  to  the  head 
end.  The  adult  is  a  small  fly,  rather  hump 
backed,  with  a  large  head  and  prominent 
eyes. 


Fig.  126.  —  Work  and  pupa- 
rium of  the  Asparagus 
Miner.  Enlarged.  Orig- 
inal. 


Fig.    127.  —  Adult   of   the  Asparagus   Miner. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 

Badly  infested  stalks  should  be  cut  off 
or  pulled  up,  and  burned.  Stalks  that  are 
being  cut  regularly  for  market  will  not 
show  injury.  A  few  plants  may  be  left 
at  this  time  as  traps,  and  these  destroyed. 

The  Rhubarb  Curculio     (Lixus  concavus 

Say) 

The  stems  of  rhubarb  sometimes  are 
scarred  and  pmictured  by  a  snout  beetle. 


ATTACKING    SURFACE    OF  STALK    OR   STEM 


139 


Fig.  128.  —  The  Rhubarb 
Curculio.  Slightly  en- 
larged.    Original. 


three  fourths  of  an  inch  long.  It  may  be 
controlled  by  hand  picking.  The  normal 
place  of  breeding  is  in  the  stems  of  dock, 
and  this  weed  should  be  removed  from  the 
neighborhood  of  rhubarb. 


The  Hessian-fly   (Mayetiola  destructor  Say) 

Few  insects  have  wrought  greater  dam- 
age   than    this    pest    in    its    periods    of 
abundance.     It  is  one  of  the  prime  enemies  of  our  wheat-growing  regions. 
The  adult  is  a  tiny,  two- winged  gnat,  one  tenth  of  an  inch  long.     It 
emerges  in  the  fall,  at  the  time  that  winter 
wheat  is  just  unfolding  its  leaves,  and  laj^s  eggs 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves.     The  re- 
sulting maggot  goes  down  to  a  point  within 
the  leaf  sheath,  feeds,  and  later  transforms 
to  a  small,  hard,  brown  object  looking  like  a 
seed,  and  known  as 
the  "flaxseed."     In 
spring  a  new  lot  of 
adults  emerge  from 
these    ''flaxseeds," 
and  at  once  lay  eggs 
on  the  leaves  of  the 
young  wheat  as  be- 
fore.    The  maggots 
which  hatch  from 
these  eggs  feed  at  the 
base  of  the  leaf,  caus- 
ing characteristic  in- 
jury.     An    infested 
plant    is    stunted, 
shows  no  visible  stem,  and  is  darker  than  normal  in  color.     If  the 
infestation  is  severe,  the  plant  is  seriously  injured  or  entirely  destroyed. 
The  summer  is  passed  in  the  flaxseed  stage,  in  the  wheat  stubble. 


Fig.  129.  —  ^^■..I■k  and 
pupariaof  the  Hessian- 
fly.     Original. 


Fig.  130.  — Adult  of  the 
Hessian-fly.  Enlarged 
and  natural  size.  Orig- 
inal. 


140 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


In  the  spring  wheat  sections  the  hfe  history  is  similar,  except  that 
winter  is  passed  as  a  flaxseed  in  the  stubble,  and  there  are  two  genera- 
tions in  quick  succession  in  summer. 

No  direct  remedies  are  known.  Crop  rotation  is  of  some  value, 
but  the  adults  can  fly  and  thus  infest  new  fields.  The  most  effective 
plan  is  to  delay  planting  of  wheat  in  the  fall  for  10  days  to  two  weeks 
beyond  the  usual  time.  The  young  wheat  plants  wiU  then  not  be 
above  ground  or  of  suitable  size  when  the  adults  emerge,  and  usually 
injury  is  largely  averted. 

Cutworms  ( Noduidce) 

About  the  time  that  young  plants  in  gardens  are  pushing  through 
the  soil  they  are  found  cut  off  even  with  the  surface  of  the  ground, 


Fu 


132.  —  Larvse  of  Noctua  clande- 
stina.     Original. 


Fig.  131.  — Work  of 
Cutworms.  Origi- 
nal. 


Fig.  133. 


Adult  of  Noctua  clandestina. 
Original. 


CUTTING    OFF  ENTIRE  PLANT 


141 


the  wilted  top  usually  lying  near  the  beheaded  root  stalk.  Corn  and 
other  field  crops  suffer  the  same  fate.  As  a  rule  the  worms  them- 
selves are  nowhere  to  be  seen ;  but  if  one  removes  the  soil  to  a  depth 
of  an  inch  or  two  near  a  dead 
plant,  one  will  likely  find  a  dark, 
naked  worm,  lying  curled  up  and 
motionless. 

There  are  many  species.  The 
worms  differ  in  markings,  but 
their  work  is  much  the  same. 
They  are  the  larvae  of  night-flying 
moths  of  the  family  Noduidoe. 
Their  parents  are  on  the  wing  in 
July  and  August,  laying  eggs  in 
fields  that  are  grown  up  to  herb- 
age of  almost  any  kind.  A  field 
that  has  been  allowed  to  run  to 
weeds  is  favorite  ground.  The  young  worms  that  hatch  from  these 
eggs  feed  for  a  few  weeks  in  the  fall,  and  then  hibernate  in  the  soil. 
In  the  spring  they  resume  activity,  and  after  the  ground  has  been 
plowed  and  seeded,  they  are  ready  to  destroy  the  first  green  plants 
that  show  up. 


Fig.  134.  —  Larva  of  Agrolis  ypsilon. 
Original. 


Fig.  135. — Adult  oi  xiw'oli^  ypsilon.     Original. 

In  large  areas,  cultivate  thoroughly  in  late  summer,  keeping  the 
ground  free  of  weeds,  and  plow  deeply  in  the  fall,  following  this  with 
early  cultivation  in  the  spring. 


142 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN   AND   FIELD    CROPS' 


Fig.  136. 


Adult  of  Noctua  c-mgrum 
Original. 


In  the  garden  injury  may 
be  avoided  by  the  use  of 
poison  bran  mash  in  the 
spring,  scattering  it  over 
the  ground  before  the  plants 
arc  due  to  come  up.  The 
worms  will  then  be  killed 
before  they  have  done  any 
damage.  Tomatoes,  cab- 
bages, and  other  large  plants 
may  be  protected  by  fitting  a  collar  of  paper  around  the  stem, 
setting  it  two  or  three  inches  into  the  ground,  and  letting  the 
upper  edge  be  three  or  four  inches  above  the  surface. 

Grasshoppers  {Acrididce) 

Grasshoppers  have  been  at  times  among  the  most  destructive  of 
pests  on  American  farms.  Almost  every  season  finds  them  in  exces- 
sive abundance  and  seriously  injuring  crops  in  some  one  of  the  states. 
At  least  half  a  dozen  species  have 
records  of  periodical  devastation, 
but  all  are  of  such  characteristic 
form,  and  their  life  histories  are 
so  similar,  that  it  is  unnecessary 
to  attempt  to  recognize  the  va- 
rious species. 

The  j^oung  appear  early  in 
summer.  They  have  no  wings, 
and  are  quite  small,  but  other- 
wise they  are  much  like  the 
adults.  They  reach  the  winged 
stage  in  midsummer  or  later.  Eggs  are  laid  in  the  ground  in  pod- 
shaped  masses,  an  inch  or  so  below  the  surface.  Pasture  land, 
lanes,  or  places  in  undisturbed,  close-growing  vegetation  of  any 
kind  are  chosen  for  egg  laying.  Frequently  large  numbers  are  laid 
in  alfalfa.     The  insect  remains  in  the  egg  stage  over  winter. 


Fig.  137.  —  Adult  of  MelanopLus  femur- 
rubrum.     Original. 


GRASSHOPPERS 


143 


When  the  insects  have  been  abundant,  all  suitable  breeding  places 
should  be  deeply  plowed  in  the  fall.  Alfalfa  may  be  disked.  In 
gardens  or  similar  locations  poison  bran  mash  may  be  used,  if  poultry 
can  be  kept  out. 

In  field  crops  two  methods  of  direct  control  are  in  general  use. 
The  insects  may  be  poisoned,  or  they  may  be  caught  in  so-called 
"  hopper-dozers."  For  wholesale  poisoning  a  fairly  satisfactory  sub- 
stance is  the  home-made  material  known  as  the  Criddle  mixture. 
Take  five  pails  of  horse  manure,  dissolve  two  pounds  of  salt  in  a 
pail  of  water  and  stir  in  one  pound  of  Pairs  green  or  London  purple, 
and  moisten  the  manure  with  this.  Scatter  it  broadcast  through  the 
field.    Another  and  an  effective  material  is  poison  bran  mash. 


Fig.   138.  —  \du\t  oi  Camnula  pellucida.     Original. 


The  hopper-dozer  consists  of  a  long,  shallow,  sheet-iron  pan,  the 
bottom  covered  with  wet  carpet  or  burlap  and  liberally  dosed  with 
kerosene.  Along  the  back  of  the  pan  is  fixed  a  shield  of  canvas  about 
three  feet  high,  and  this  also  is  wet  with  kerosene.  The  pan  is  drawn 
sidewise  over  the  ground  by  a  man  at  each  end,  or  by  horses.  The 
grasshoppers  jump  as  the  pan  reaches  them,  come  in  contact  with  the 
kerosene  in  the  pan  or  on  the  shield,  and  are  killed  by  it.  The  scheme 
is  satisfactory  only  if  put  into  use  while  the  insects  are  still  in  their 
wingless  stages. 

Certain  specie^:  of  grasshoppers  develop  the  habit  of  migrating 
when  excessivel.v  ?bundant.  In  such  cases  direct  remedial  measures 
are  practically  impossible. 


144 


FKSTS    OF    GARDEN   AND    FIELD    CROPS 


Blister-beetles  (Meloidce) 

Swarms  of  rather  large,  long-legged  beetles,  black,  gray,  or  striped 
black  and  yellow,  with  distinct  heads  and  "  necks  "  and  elongated, 
straight-cut  bodies,  sometimes  descend  on  field  or  garden  crops  and 


Fig.  139.  — The  Striped  Blister- 
beetle.     Original. 


Fig.  140.  —  The  Ash-gray  Blis- 
ter-beetle.    Original. 


quickly  destroy  the  foliage.  They  often  do  great  damage  to  sugar 
beets,  potatoes,  and  beans,  or  other  legumes.  There  are  several  species, 
as  noted  below. 

The  younger  stages  are  spent  in  the  soil,  the  larvae  feeding  in  the 


Fig.  141.  — Nuttall's  Blister- 
beetle.     Original. 


Fig.  142.  —  The  Black  Blis- 
ter-beetle.    Original. 


egg  clusters  of  grasshoppers.  Emergence  of  the  adult  beetle  takes 
place  in  the  spring. 

The  Striped  Blister-beetle  (Epicauta  vittata  Fab.)  is  black,  marked 
with  three  distinct,  longitudinal  yellow  stripes.  It  is  common  on 
potatoes  and  sugar  beets,  but  often  attacks  other  crops. 

The  Ash-gray  Blister-beetle  {Macrobasis  unicolor  Kby.)  is  a  smooth 


LARGE  BEETLES  EATING    THE  LEAVES  145 

gray  in  color.     It  is  oftenest  found  on  legumes,  and  sometimes  on 
potatoes. 

The  Gray  Blister-beetle  (Epicauta  cinerca  Fors.)  is  of  the  same 
general  type. 

Nuttall's  Blister-beetle  (Cantharis  nuttalli  Say)  is  a  handsome,  shin- 
ing, deep  blue  in  color  and  the  largest  species  of  the  group.  It  ranges 
through  the  Western  states,  and  is  espe- 
cially destructive  on  beans  and  other 
legumes. 

The  Black  BHster-beetle  {Epicauta 
pennsylvanica  DeG.)  is  often  destructive 
to  potato  \ines.  It  is  a  shining  black 
in  color. 

The  Buttercup  Oil  Beetle  {Meloe  an-    Fig.  143. -The  Buttercup OU 
..     „.       ox-       ...  -         1    •  r  Beetle.     OriKUial. 

gusticoUis    bay)    is    mjurious    for    brier 

periods.     It  is  .a  deep,  sliining,  blue  black  in  color,  and  has  shortened 
wing  covers.     Often  the  abdomen  is  greatly  enlarged. 

Blister-beetles  may  be  poisoned  by  prompt  and  thorough  applica- 
tions of  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead,  but  they  are  apt  to  appear 
suddenly,  and  to  do  much  damage  before  noticed.  In  field  crops  the 
beetles  sometimes  are  driven  away  bj^  a  hue  of  people  armed  with 
brush  mo\'ing  slowly  across  the  field. 

The  Colorado  Potato-beetle  {Leptinotarsa  decemlineata  Say) 

Potato-beetles  or  "  bugs  "  need  little  descriiition.  For  many  years 
they  have  been  omnipresent,  and  all  who  have  raised  potatoes  or 
seen  them  growing  will  readily  recognize  the  heavj^-bodicd  beetle, 
three  eighths  of  an  inch  long,  with  its  yellow  or  orange  wing  covers 
marked  with  10  black  lines.     (See  frontispiece.) 

The  young  or  larva  is  often  known  as  a  "  slug,"  and  after  the  season 
is  well  started  is  found  in  large  numbers  on  the  vines.  It  is  dark 
red,  becoming  lighter  as  it  grows  older,  and  has  a  series  of  black  .spots 
down  each  side.  Its  head  is  quite  small.  The  eggs  are  bright  orange, 
and  are  found  in  masses  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 

The  pest  passes  the  winter  as  adult  beetles  under  ground.     They  come 


146 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


out  from  these  quarters 
early  in  the  spring,  and 
begin  laying  eggs  as  soon 
as  food  plants  are  avail- 
able. Usually  the  over- 
wintering beetles  live 
and  continue  laying 
eggs  for  a  considerable 
period.  The  grub  en- 
ters the  ground  to  pu- 
pate, when  it  has  be- 
come full  grown.  There 
are  two  generations  an- 
nually. 

Poisoning    by    means 
of  Paris  green  and  lime, 
or  lead  arsenate,  is  the 
simplest    and    best 
Eggs  of  the  Colorado  Potato-beetle,  remedy.     Use    a    rather 
Slightly  enlarged.     Original.  j^^^vy     dose     and     apply 

early,  as  soon  as  the  potato  tops  are  a  few  inches  liigh,  repeating 

as  needed. 


Fig.  144. 


The  Three-lined  Potato  Beetle   (Lema  trilineata  Oliv.) 

Injury  by  this  species  is  about 
the  same  as  that  done  by  the 
Colorado  potato-beetle.  The 
eggs  are  laid  along  the  midrib 
of  the  leaf.  The  larva  covers 
itself  with  a  mass  of  excre- 
ment. The  adult  is  a  hand- 
some   beetle,    its    body    striped 

with    light    yellow    and    black. 

T^     ,        .1     •  "      ,.  ,1                    ,  Fig.     145.  — The     Three-lined     Potato 

Its  length  IS  a  little  more  than  beetle.     Enlarged    and    natural    size, 

one    third    of    an    inch.     There  Original. 


BEETLES   AND    GRUBS  EATING    THE  LEAVES 


147 


are    two    broods   each   season.     The   pest    is    easily    killed    by    the 
application  of  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead. 

The  Larger  Beet  Leaf-beetle  (Monoxia  pimcticollis  Say) 

Both  the  adult  beetles  and  the  larvae  feed  on  the  leaves  of  beets. 
Injury  is  begun  by  the  beetles,  wliich  are  one  fourth  of  an  inch  long, 
brownish  to  black  in  color,  each 
wing  cover  vaguely  marked  with 
an  obscure  Ughter  band.  Eggs 
are  laid  on  the  leaves,  and  from 
these  hatch  the  larvae,  which 
add  to  the  damage.  The  full- 
grown  larva  is  one  third  of  an 
inch  long,  rather  robust,  and 
nearly  black  in  ground  color. 
The  segments  are  distinctly 
shown  by  low  tubercles,  the 
tops  of  which  are  marked  with 
light    yellow,    gi\'ing   the   larva 


Fig.  146.  — The  Larger  Beet  Leaf-beetle. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 


The    insect 


a    dotted   appearance, 
appears  to  breed  normally  on  native  wild  plants. 

Its  work  may  be  checked  by  the 
prompt  application  of  Paris  green 
or  arsenate  of  lead. 

The    Bean    Leaf-beetle    {Ceratoma 
tr  if  areata  Fors.) 

Black  and  yellow  beetles,  one 
sixth  of  an  inch  long,  feed  on  the 
fohage  of  beans,  cowpeas,  and  re- 
lated plants,  eating  holes  in  the 
leaves.  The  ground  color  of  the 
insect  is  yellow  or  red,  margined 
with  black  and  with  four  black  spots  on  its  back.     The  larvae  live  on 


Fig.    147.  —  The    Bean    Leaf-beetle. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.   Original. 


the  roots  of  the  plants, 
suitable  shelter. 


The  insect  hibernates  as  an  adult  in  any 


148  PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 

Prompt  application  of  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  will  check 
the  pest.  Apply  early  before  the  bean  pods  are  well  formed.  Clean- 
ing up  rubbish  in  the  fall  is  of  value.  The  destruction  of  weeds  that 
belong  in  the  same  botanical  family  is  an  additional  remedial  measure. 

The  Bean  Lady  Beetle   {Epilachna  corrupta  Muls.) 

In  some  of  the  Western  states  beans  are  subject  to  injury  by  tliis 
species.     Early  in  the  season  the  foliage  is  eaten  by  the  adults,  which 

have  hibernated.  These  are  fol- 
lowed by  the  larvae,  and  later  a 
new  generation  of  adults  is  at 
work.  As  soon  as  the  bean  pods 
appear  they  are  attacked  as  well 
as  the  leaves.  The  larvae  skele- 
tonize the  leaves,  working  on  the 
under  side,  wliile  the  adults  de- 
vour the  leaf  tissue  entire. 

The  adult  beetle  is  broadly  oval, 
one   tliird   of   an   inch   long,   light 

Fig.  148. -The  Bean  Lady  Beetle.  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^^lor,  and  marked  with 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.  Origi-  eight  dots  on  each  wing  COVer. 
^^1-  The  larva  is  about  the  same  size, 

yellowish,   and  covered  with  short,   branched  spines.     There  is  one 

generation  annually. 

Arsenicals,  either  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead,  will  kill  both  larvae 

and  adults.     The  applications  must  be  made  to  the  under  side  of  the 

leaves. 

The  Squash  Lady  Beetle  {Epilachna  borealis  Fab.) 

Both  the  insect  and  its  work  are  characteristic.  The  adult  beetle 
is  one  third  of  an  inch  long,  nearly  as  wide,  yehowish  to  brownish  in  color, 
and  marked  with  seven  large  black  dots  on  each  wing  cover.  In  addition 
there  are  four  small  dots  on  the  thorax.  The  eggs  are  yellowish,  and  are 
laid  in  clusters  on  the  leaf.  The  larva  is  oval  in  shape,  a  half  inch  long, 
and  covered  with  rather^  long,  branching  spines.  The  beetle  marks 
out  a  circular  area  on  a  leaf  and  then  feeds  within  this.     The  larva 


BEETLES   ANT)    GRUBS   EATING    THE   LEAVES 


149 


^ 

^ 

w 

M 

TW^J 

Su^^- 

^"f  .^^ 

V< 

ri''_S^^-\ 

^  -v^  ^^^'.^^1 

^ 

^rfLfjff     -iJ-i 

^JA^ 

1, 

iV3?iiiri 

.^^ 

1^ 

Fig.  149.  — Work  of  the  Scjuash  Lady  Beetle. 
Original. 


Fig.  150.  —  Larva  of  the 
Squash  Lady  Beetle. 
Slightly  enlarged.  Orig- 
inal. 


feeds  anywhere  on  the 
leaf.  Squashes  and  re- 
lated plants  are  at- 
tacked. Winter  is 
passed  as  an  adult. 
There  is  one  generation 
annually. 

Eggs   should   be   re- 
moved  when   found. 


Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  may  be  used  to  poison  the  beetles 
and  larvae.  With  each  of  the  last  two  species  adults  are  at  work 
both  in  spring  and  in  summer  because  of  the  hibernating  habits. 


Fig.  151.  —  Adults  of  the  Squash  Lady  Beetle.     Original. 


150 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN   AND   FIELD    CROPS 


The  Striped  Cucumber  Beetle  {Diabrutica  vittata  Fab.) 

As  soon  as  the  tender  leaves  of  melons,  cucumbers,  and  squashes 
are  above  ground,  a  lot  of  yellow  and  black  striped  beetles,  two  fifths  of 


Fig.  152.  —  The  Striped  Cucumber  Beetle.    Adults,  natural  size  and 
enlarged.     Original. 

an  inch  long,  hunt  them  out  and  do  their  best  to  destroy  them.  The 
larvae  eat  the  tender  roots  of  the  same  plants  on  which  the  adults  are 
seen ;  and  in  addition  the  feeding  of  the  adults  is  instrumental  in 
spreading  a  bacterial  wilt  that  often  suddenly  kills  the  vines. 


SMALL   BEETLES  I^'JrBING   LEAF  AND    STEM         151 

There  is  one  brood  of  tliis  species  in  the  North,  but  in  the  South  two 
generations  are  recorded.  The  adults  hibernate  in  any  convenient 
shelter  or  in  the  ground. 

Where  possible,  young  plants  should  be  protected  with  cloth  or  wire 
screen  until  they  have  got  a  start.  Lacking  this,  it  is  wise  to  plant  an 
excess  of  seed,  thus  allowing  for  the  thinning  that  the  pest  will  do. 

It  is  difficult  to  poison  the  beetles,  because  they  will  hunt  out  parts 
of  the  stem  or  leaves,  or  later  the  inside  of  the  flowers,  where  the  sur- 


FiG.  153. — Plants  protected  with  cloth  screens,  to  prevent  injury 
by  the  Striped  Cucumber  Beetle.     Original. 

face  is  not  coated  with  a  spray  material.  Nevertheless,  considerable 
protection  is  afforded  by  spraying  thoroughly  with  arsenate  of  lead, 
using  4  or  5  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water. 

Many  repellents  have  been  tried,  but  most  are  of  little  use  when  the 
beetles  are  numerous,  and  their  effect  seems  to  last  only  a  short  time. 
Probably  the  best  is  drj^-slaked  or  air-slaked  hme  with  which  has  been 
mixed  flowers  of  sulphur.  Fine  road  dust  or  tobacco  dust  will  drive 
them  away  from  the  plants  temporarily. 

Beans  or  squashes  planted  ahead  of  the  main  crop  will  in  a  measure 
protect  the  latter.  Removal  of  crop  remnants,  and  general  cleaning 
up  of  the  garden  in  the  fall,  will  help  to  avert  serious  injury  the  next 
season. 


152 


FESTS   OF   GARDEN   AND   FIELD    CROPS 


The  Twelve-spotted  Cucumber  Beetle  {Diabrotica 
duodecimpundata  Oliv.) 

This  insect,  in  its  larval  stage,  is  known  in  the  South  as  the  southern 

corn  root- worm,  where  it  is  a  pest  of  corn  and  other  field  crops. 

In  the  central  and  northern  re- 
gions injury  by  the  adult  beetle  is 
more  often  noted,  the  crops  at- 
tacked being  cucumber,  melon, 
squash,  beets,  cabbage  —  in  fact, 
almost  every  sort  of  vegetable. 
The  beetles  are  especially  partial 
to  the  blossoming  parts  of  the 
plant. 

The  adult  is  easily  recognized. 
It  is  one  fourth  of  an  inch  long, 
broader  toward  the  hind  end,  yel- 
lowish green 
in  color,  and 
ornamented 

with  twelve  black  spots  on  its  back.     Its  head 

is  black. 

The  adults  hide  away  during  the  winter,  and 

appear   early   in   the   spring.      There  are  two 

generations  in  the  North,  and  probably  more 

in  the  South. 

Remedies  for  the  adult   beetle  are  the  same 

as  those  for  the  striped  cucumber  beetle. 

The  Asparagus  Beetle  (Crioceris  asparagi  Linn.) 

Both  the  young  shoots  and  the  leafy  tops  of 
asparagus  are  attacked  by  the  larva  and  the 
adult  beetle  of  this  species.  The  shoots  are  ^Aspartg^s^^^ltll! 
rendered  unfit  for  use,  and  the  injury  to  the  Enlar^f^d  and  natural 
tops  weakens  the  plants.  size.    Original. 


Fig.  154. —  The  Twelve-spotted  Cu- 
cumber Beetle.  Enlarged  and  natu- 
ral size.     Original. 


SMALL   BEETLES   AND    GRUBS  ATTACKING   FOLIAGE      153 

The  adult  is  one  fourth  inch  long,  blue  black  in  ground  color,  its 
wing  covers  yellow,  bordered  and  marked  with  dark  blue,  and  its 
thorax  red.     It  is  active  in  habits,   dodging  around  a  stem  when 


Fjg.  156. 


The  Asparagus  Beetle.    Larvae  and  adults  natural 
size,  and  adult  enlarged.    Original. 


disturbed.     The  grub  is  three  tenths  of  an  inch  long,  grajdsh  or  olive, 
with  a  sliining  black  head. 

The  beetles  emerge  from  their  hibernating  quarters  about  the  time 
that  asparagus  shoots  are  ready  for  the  first  cutting.  Eggs  are  laid 
on  the  shoots,  and  later  on  the  stems.     The  larva  enters  the  ground 


154 


PESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


:,;ec'*'^ 


Fig.  157.  —  Larva  of  the  Asparagus 
Beetle.  Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


to  pupate.     There  are  two  to 
four  generations  annually. 

To  control,  permit  a  few 
shoots  to  grow  up  at  once, 
and  poison  with  Paris  green  the 
beetles  and  grubs  on  these. 
Collect  the  shoots  desired  for 
the  table  or  market  at  frequent 
intervals.  Fresh,  air-slaked 
lime  dusted  on  the  grubs  will 
kill  them. 


The  Twelve-spotted  Asparagus  Beetle  {Crioceris  duodecimpundata  L.) 

Injury  by  this  species  to  the  young  shoots  is  much  the  same  as 
that  due  to  the  common  asparagus  beetle.  Holes  are  dug  and  the 
surface  is  eaten  both  by  the  grubs  and  by  the  adult  beetles. 
Later,  when  the  tops  are 
grown,  the  adults  tend  to 
feed  largely  on  the  substance 
of  the  berries. 

The  adult  beetle  is  one 
fourth  inch  long,  orange  in 
color,  with  six  black  dots  on 
each  wing  cover.  The  grub 
is  three  tenths  of  an  inch 
long,  with  yellowish  body  and 
brownish  head.  There  are 
from  two  to  four  generations 
annually. 

Control  is  the  same  as  that  for  the  common  asparagus  beetle. 


Fig.  158.  — The  Twelve-spotted  Aspara- 
gus Beetle.  Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


Tortoise  Beetles  attacking  Sweet  Potatoes 

As  soon  as  sweet  potato  plants  are  set  out  in  the  field  they  are  sought 
out  by  odd  little  insects  known  as  tortoise  beetles.     Holes  are  eaten 


SMALL   BEETLES  AND    GRUBS  ATTACKING   FOLIAGE     155 


Fig. 


in  the  leaves,  and  when  the 

young  or  larvae  get  to  work 

a  few  days  later,  the  foliage 

may  be  pretty  well  destroyed. 
The  adult  beetles  are  broadly 

oval,  flattened,  and  their  backs 

bear  some  resemblance  to  a 

tortoise    shell.       The    Two- 
striped  Sweet  Potato  Beetle 

{Cassida  hiviUata  Say)  is  one 

fourth  of  an  inch  long,  and 

has  two  black  stripes  on  each 

of  its  yellow  wing  covers.   The 

Golden  Tortoise  Beetle  {Copto- 

cycla  bicolor  Fab.)   is  larger 

and  a  bright,  golden  yellow. 

The     Black-legged     Tortoise 

Beetle  {Cassida  nigripes  Oliv.) 

is  five  sixteenths  of  an  inch  long,  and  has  gold  wing  covers,  each 

bearing  tliree  black  spots. 
The  larvse  of  tortoise  beetles  are   known  as  "  peddlers,"  because 

they  often  carry  a  mass  of  excrement  on  two  spines  at  the  hind  end, 

and    elevate    this    over    their 
backs. 

There  is  one  generation  a 
year.  The  adults  hide  away 
in  warm,  dry  places.  To  con- 
trol, dip  the  plants  before  set- 
ting out  in  arsenate  of  lead  1 
pomid  to  8  or  10  gallons  of 
water.  The  larvse  may  be 
killed  by  applying  Paris  green 
or  arsenate  of  lead  to  the  plants 
after  setting. 


159.  —  Work  of  Tortoise  Beetles  on 
sweet  potato.    Original. 


Fig.  160.  —  A  Tortoise  Beetle,  Coptocycla 
bicolor.  Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


156 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


The  Cucumber  Flea-beetle   {Epitrix  cucumeris  Harr.) 
Synonyms :   The  Potato  Flea-beetle ;   The   Tomato  Flea-beetle 

The  leaves  of  potatoes  and  tomatoes,  and  sometimes  those  of 
cucumbers  and  related  plants,  are  riddled  by  very  small,  black,  active 
beetles  wliich  quickly  jump  and  disappear  when  disturbed.     Their 


Fig.  161.  —  The  Cucumber  Flea-beetle.     Adults  and  work  on  potato 
leaf,  natural  size,  and  adult  enlarged.     Original. 


SMALL,   ACTIVE   FLEA-BEETLES   INJURING   FOLIAGE       157 


work  gives  the  leaf  the  appearance  of  being  shot  full  of  small  holes, 

though  frequently  only  the  upper  surface  is  eaten  off  at  each  feeding 

place.     The  beetle  is  so 

small   that   its  markings 

can    be    made    out   only 

under  a   hand   lens.      It 

measures  one  sixteenth  of 

an    inch    long,    is    c|uite 

black,  and  has  yellowish 

legs  and  antennae. 

The  larvae  are  very 
slender,  tiny  worms,  and 
live  in  the  soil,  feeding 
on  the  roots.  When  nu- 
merous on  potatoes,  they 
may  cause  the  surface  of 
the  tubers  to  develop 
raised  spots  or  ''pimples." 

The  adults  hibernate  in  rubbish.  Their  first  generation  is  raised 
on  weeds  related  to  the  potato,  such  as  horse  nettle  and  the  hke. 
There  are  two  or  three  broods  in  a  season. 

Bordeaux  mixture  combined  with  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  and 
applied  as  a  spray  is  the  best  remedy.  It  will  drive  away  most  of  the 
beetles,  and  those  that  remain  will  be  poisoned. 


Fig.  162.  —  Potato   injured    by    larvae  of    the 
Cucumber  Flea-beetle.     Original. 


The  Pale-striped  Flea-beetle  (Systena  tceniata  var.  blanda  Say) 

The  common  name  w^ell  describes  this  species.  The  adult  is  one 
eighth  inch  long,  its  thorax  cream  colored,  and  its  wing  covers  striped 
with  the  same  shade,  alternating  with  yellow. 

Practically  every  kind  of  garden  or  field  crop  is  attacked,  including 
sugar  beets,  corn,  tomatoes,  melons,  cabbages,  turnips,  cotton,  and 
many  others.     The  foliage  of  the  plants  is  riddled  with  fine  holes. 

The  larvae  feed  on  the  roots  of  common  weeds.  The  pest  passes 
the  winter  as  a  rule  in  the  larval  stage,  the  adults  appearing  in  large 
numbers  in  the  early  part  of  summer.     There  is  one  brood  annually. 


158 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND    FIELD    CROPS 


Where  feasible,  apply  arsenicals  to 
the  plants  attacked,  or  Bordeaux 
mixture  combined  with  arsenicals. 
Weeds  should  be  destroyed  in  the  fall. 

The  Banded  Flea-beetle  {Systena 
tceniata  Say)  is  similar  in  appear- 
ance, though  darker,  and  of  the  same 
habits. 


r.G.  163.  —  The  Pale-striped  Flea-beetle. 
Enlarged  and  natural  si^e.     Original. 


Fig.  164. —Work  of  the 
Banded  Flea-beetle.  Orig- 
inal. 


The  Striped  Flea-beetle  {Phyllotreta  vittata  Fab.) 

Cabbage,  turnips,  and  related  crops  are  preferred  by  this  species 
of  flea-beetle.     The  adults  make  numerous  small  holes  in  the  leaves, 

and  the  slender,  whitish  larvse  live  in  the 
soil,  feeding  principally  on  the  roots  of 
various  weeds  of  the  same  family.  The 
adult  is  one  eighth  of  an  inch  long,  black, 
each  wing  cover  marked  with  a  hght, 
waving  band. 

Paris  green  or   arsenate  of   lead,  either 

alone   or   in   combination   with   Bordeaux 

mixture,  may  be  used  on  turnip  tops,  or 

on  cabbage  that  is  not  ready  for  market. 

On  cabbage,  until  it  is  half-grown,  add  resin  soap  to  the  Paris  green. 

After  the  plants  are  three  fourths  grown  use  repellents. 


FxG.  165.  —  The  Striped  Flea- 
beetle.  Enlarged  and  nat- 
ural size.     Original. 


SMALL,    ACTIVE   FLEA-BEETLES   INJURING    FOLIAGE 


159 


The  Western  Cabbage  Flea-beetle  {Phyllotreta  pusilla  Horn.) 
This  species  is  related  to  the  preceding,  and  follows  it  closely  in 


life  history  and  habits. 


The  adult  is  one  twelfth  of  an  inch  long, 
dark  green  in  color,  without  bands  or 
other  similar  markings  on  its  wings. 
Control  is  the  same  as  for  the  preceding 
species. 


Fig.  166.  — The  Western  Cab- 
bage Flea-beetle.  Enlarged 
and  natural  size.    Original. 


Pjq    167.— The  Tobacco   Flea-beetle, 
largcd  and  natural  size.     Original, 


En- 


The  Tobacco  Flea-beetle  {Epilrix  parvula  Fab.) 
A  small,  dark,  active  beetle,  provided  with  strong  hind  legs  that 
enable  it  to  jump  readily,  injures  the  leaves  of  tobacco  both  in  the  seed 
bed  and  in  the  field  by  eating  numerous  small  holes  in  them.  If  one 
of  the  beetles  be  examined  closely,  it  will  be  found  to  have  a  darker 
band  across  its  back,  and  its  wing  covers  are  finely  pitted. 

The  adults  appear  from  their  winter  hiding  places  early  in  the  spring. 
Eggs  are  laid  on  the  ground  or  on  the  plants.  The  larvae  live  in  the 
ground,  feeding  on  small  roots. 

Seed  beds  that  are  closely  covered  with  cloth  will  not  be  injured. 
The  adult  beetles  may  be  killed  by  thorough  spraying  with  arsenate 
of  lead  or  Paris  green. 

The  Spinach  Flea-beetle  {Disomjcha  xanthomelxBna  Dalm.) 
A  much  larger  species  of  flea-beetle  commonly  attacks  spinach, 
and  is  often  a  serious  pest  of  sugar  beets.     The  adult  is  one  fourth 
of  an  inch  long,  with  yellow  thorax  and  shining  blue  wing  covers. 


160 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND    FIELD    CROPS 


1 

The  larvsB  of  this  species  feed 
on  the  leaves.  They  are  one 
fourth   inch    long   when    mature, 


Fig.   168.  — Work    of    the    Spinach 
Flea-beetle.     Original. 


Fig.   169.  — The  Spinach   Flea-beetle. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 

rather  thick  bodied,  grayish  in 
color  or  sometimes  dark  purplish. 
On  each  segment  are  rows  of 
raised  tubercles.  There  are  two 
broods  in  the  course  of  the  summer,  the  adults  hibernating.  The 
use  of  Paris  green  to  poison  the  larvae  and  adults,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  weeds  in  the  fall  and 
spring,  are  the  remedies. 

The  Triangular  Flea-beetle 
{Disonycha  triangularis  Say) 
is  about  the  same  size  as  the 
preceding,  and  has  the  same 
feeding  habits.  Its  thorax  is 
marked  with  three  black  dots 
arranged  in  the  form  of  a  tri- 
angle. 

The   life    history    is    similar 


Fig.    170.  — The   Triangular   Flea-beetle. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 


to  that  of  the  preceding,  and  the  same  remedies  will  apply. 


SMALL,   ACTIVE   FLEA-BEETLES  INJURING   FOLIAGE      161 


The   Sweet  Potato  Flea-beetle   {Chcetocnema  confinis  Cr.) 

Soon  after  sweet  j^otato  plants  are  set  in  the  field  they  begin  to  show 
the  characteristic  work  of  the  sweet  potato  flea-beetle.  Narrow  lines 
are  gouged  out  on  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  at  first  following  parallel 

to  the  veins,  but  later  running 
in  any  direction.  At  the 
same  time  the  beetles  them- 
selves will  be  noticed  in  in- 
creasing numbers.  They  are 
tiny,    active,    bronze-colored 


Fig.  172.  — The  Sweet  Potato 
Flea-beetle.  Enlarged  and  nat- 
ural size.     Original. 

insects,  one  sixteenth  of  an 
inch  long. 

In  tliree  or  four  weeks  the 
beetles  practically  all  disap- 
pear, ha\ing  migrated  to  wild 
plants  of  related  species.  The 
only  injury  is  at  the  beginning 
of  the  season. 
Dip  the  plants  in  arsenate  of  load  when  setting  them  out,  immersing 
the  tops  but  not  the  roots.  Use  1  pound  of  lead  arsenate  to  8  or 
10  gallons  of  water.  In  addition,  spray  the  plants  with  arsenate 
of  lead  about  ten  days  later,  to  protect  new  foliage.  Plants  that  are 
set  out  late  will  escape  serious  injury. 


Fig.  171.  —  W  ork  of  tin-  Sweet  Potato  Flea- 
beetle.     Original. 


162  PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 

The  Hop  Flea-beetle  {Psylliodes  pwidulata  Melsh.) 

Leaves  of  hops,  sugar  beets,  and  some  other  plants  are  attacked  by 
very  small,  active  beetles,  which  feed  at  first  on  the  tender  shoots  and 
buds  and  later  eat  holes  in  the  leaves.  The  adult  is  about  one  tenth 
of  an  inch  long,  shining  black,  its  upper  surface  marked  with  many 
minute  pits  in  regular  rows. 

The  larva  is  slender,  wliitish,  and  lives  in  the  ground.     There  are 
two  generations  in   the  hop  regions  of  the 
north  Pacific  coast.     The  insect  hibernates 
^gflB^^  as  an  adult. 

^^k^^^H^BjP  On  sugar  beets  control  is  not  easy.     Bor- 

'^  deaux  acts  as  a  fairly  effective  repellent.     A 

fair  proportion  of  beetles  may  be  poisoned  by 
applying  arsenicals. 


Fig.  173.  — The  Hop  Flea-  Where  the  beetles  appear  suddenly  in  de- 
beetle.       Enlarged    and  j.       x-                            i           xi    •            i 

,      1   .        r»  •  •    1  structive  swarms  on  hops,  their  numbers  may 

natural  size.     Original.  .                            , 

be  reduced  materially  by  brusliing  them  from 
the  vines  and  catching  them  on  sticky  shields  made  by  stretching  cloth 
over  light  frames  and  coating  the  surface  with  tar.  Banding  the 
vines  and  poles  with  tanglefoot  before  the  adults  first  appear  will 
largely  protect  the  vines,  since  the  adults  seem  to  follow  the  habit  of 
crawling  up  the  vines  instead  of  flying. 


The  Alfalfa  Leaf- we  evil  {Phytonomus  posticus  Fab.) 

Alfalfa  throughout  the  Western  states  is  seriously  threatened  by  this 
pest,  which  is  native  to  Europe  and  Asia  and  has  accidentally  been 
introduced  into  this  country. 

The  plants  are  injured  both  by  the  adult  weevils  and  by  their  young 
or  grubs.  Depredations  begin  in  early  spring,  when  the  beetles  come 
out  from  their  winter  quarters  and  puncture  the  young  stems  of  alfalfa 
to  make  places  for  depositing  their  eggs.  Shortly  the  grubs  hatch 
and  begin  feeding  on  the  tender  leaves  and  the  crown  of  the  plant. 
Transformation  to  the  adult  stage  begins  in  June,  and  later  the  beetles 


SNOUT-BEETLES   AND    GRUBS   EATING   LEAVES      163 

swarm  on  the  plants,  eating  the  freslily  expanded  leaves  and  gnawing 
the  surface  of  stems  in  such  way  as  to  kill  the  growth  above. 


Fig.  174.  —  The  Alfalfa  Lcaf-woovil.    En- 
larged and  natural  size.     Original. 


Fig.  175. —  Pupa  of  the  Alfalfa 
Leaf-weevil.  Enlarged  and 
natural  size.     Original. 


The  adult  is  one  eighth  to  tliree  sixteenths  of  an  inch  long,  and  when 
freshly  emerged  is  brown.  It  grows  darker  in  a  few  days.  Its  body  is 
covered  with  black  and 
gray  hairs,  giving  it  a 
mottled  appearance. 
The  grub  is  one  fourth 
inch  long,  tapering  toward 
each  extremity,  and  has 
a  light  stripe  down  its 
back. 

Remedial  measures 
thus  far  devised  include  : 
t  borough  disking  early 
in  the  spring  so  as  to 
induce  quick,  \'igorous 
growth  of  the  plants; 
the  use  of  a  spike-tooth 
harrow  combined  with  a 
brush  drag  immediately 
following  the  first  cutting 


^ 

fi 

1 

J 

r'  1 

r1 

5, 

/•   1 

•  .-. 

i  1  '  1 

'* 

f '  1 J 

1 

^%. 

■^  -'^i 

Fig.  176.  —  Egg  puncture 
and  work  of  the  Alfalfa 
Leaf-weevil.     Original. 


Fig. 


177.  —  Feed- 
ing punctures  of 
the  Alfalfa  Leaf- 
weevil.    Original. 


164 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELIt    CROPS 


Fig,  178.  —  The    Clover    Leaf -weevil.     Work    on    clover  leaves. 
Adult  enlarged  to  twice  natural  size.     Original. 

of  hay,  so  as  to  knock  off  and  kill  the  grubs ;   breaking  up  old  alfalfa 

fields,  not    allowing    a    field    to 

remain  more  than  six  years ;  and 

scrupulous    cleaning    up    of    all 

rubbish  or  other  hiding  places 

in  the  fall. 

The    Clover    Leaf-weevil    {Phy- 
tonomus  punctatus  Fab.) 

In  early  spring  the  leaves  of 
clover    and    alfalfa    show    the 


Fig.  179.  —  Cocoons   ol    the   Clover     Fig.  180.  —  Clover    head    deformed    bj' 
Leaf-weevil.       Slightly      enlarged.  work  of  the  Lesser  Clover  Leaf-weevil. 

Original.  Original. 


SNOUT-BEETLES   AND    GRUBS   EATING    LEAVES        165 


characteristic  work  of 

the  larvae  of  the  clover 

leaf-weevil.  The  grubs 

themselves  are  not  apt 

to  be  seen,   for  they 

work  only  at  night  and 

he  concealed  close  to 

the  base  of  the  plant 

during    the    daytime, 

but  the  edges  of  the 

leaves   will   be  found 

eaten  out  in  regular 

scallops.       The     full- 
grown  larva  is  a  half 

inch  long,  dusky  green, 

with  a  lighter  stripe 

down   the   middle   of 

the  back. 

In  July  or  August 

the  adult  beetle  is  to 

be  found,  feeding  on 

the  leaves  of  the  plants.     It  is  one  third  of  an  inch  long,  dark  brown 

in  color  but  lighter  on  the  sides,  and  covered  with  short  hairs. 

Eggs  are  soon  laid  by  the 
beetles,  the  young  grubs  feeding 
for  a  short  time  and  then  hiber- 
nating near  the  plants  just 
below  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
No  direct  measures  of  con- 
trol are  feasible.  Badly  in- 
fested fields  should  be  plowed 
and  seeded  to  some  other  crop. 

Damage  is  seldom  serious  until 
F.G    182-The  Lesser  Clover  Loaf-woe-      ^   p^,^   ,^^^   ^^^^   .^   ^j^^^^  ^^^ 
vil.     Enlarged   and  natural  size.     Orig- 
inal, two  years. 


Fig.  181. 


Larva  and  work  of  the  Lesser  Clover 
Leaf-weevil.     Original. 


166 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


Fig.  183.  —  Cocoon  of  the  Lesser  Clover 
Leaf-weevil  in  clover  head.  Enlarged. 
Original. 


Large  numbers  of  the  grubs 
often  die  from  a  fungous  dis- 
ease, and  may  be  seen  coiled 
around  the  stems  near  the  top. 
Cattle  eating  clover  on  which 
many  of  these  dead  larvse 
are  present,  are  apt  to  be 
mildly  poisoned. 

The  Lesser  Clover  Leaf-we evil 

(Phytonomus  nigrirostis  Fab.) 

Small  holes  are  eaten  in  the 
young  and  tender  leaves  of 
clover,  and  later,  at  the  bloom- 
ing period,  the  inner  parts  of 
the  heads  are  destroyed  by  a 


tiny  grub,  the  immature  stage  of  a  small,  greenish  snout  beetle. 


-Fig.  184.  —  Clover  leaves  showing  characteristic  work  of 
the  Lesser  Clover  Leaf-weevil.     Original. 

The  beetle  spends  the  winter  in  rubbish  or  other  shelter.  Emergence 
begins  with  warm  weather,  and  egg-laying  continues  for  several  weeks. 
There  is  only  one  generation  annually. 

No  direct  remedial  measures  are  known. 


SNOUT  BEETLES  EATING    THE  LEAVES 


167 


The  Flavescent  Clover-weevil  {Sitones  flavescens  Marsh.) 
Occasionally  the  leaves  of  clover   are  eaten  by  a  brownish   snout 
beetle,  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  length,  its  body  rather  thickly 
covered  with    short   hairs.      The   larv«   work    in    the    softer  parts 

of  the  stems.  The  insect  hi- 
bernates as  a  larva.  Dusting 
or  spraying  with  Paris  green 
or  arsenate  of  lead  will  kill  the 
beetles. 


Fig.  185.  —  Work  of  the  Flavescent  Clover- 
weevil.     Original. 


Fig.  186.  —  The  Imbricated  Snout 
Beetle.  Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


The  Imbricated  Snout  Beetle  {EpiccErus  imbricatus  Say) 
PracticaUy  aU  species  of  garden  and  field  crops,  and  sometimes  the 
buds  or  foliage  of  tree  or  bush  fruits,  may  be  attacked  by  this  insect.  It 
is  a  rather  large  snout  beetle,  five  eighths  of  an  inch  long,  its  wing  cov- 
ers banded  in  zigzag  pattern  with  gray  and  light  brown.  The  snout  is 
broad  and  short.     The  larva  lives  in  the  ground.     The  adults  cannot 

fly.  f 

The  beetles  may  be  poisoned  by  promptly  appb^ng  arsenate  of 
lead  or  Paris  green. 


168 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN   AND   FIELD    CROPS 


Fig.   187.  —  'Larya  oi  Phlegethontins  sexta.     Original. 

Tobacco  or  Tomato    Worms    {Phlegethontius  sexta  Joh.,  and   Phlege- 
thontius  quinquemaculata  Haw.) 

Large,  naked,  green  worms,  armed  with  a  curved  horn  near  the  hind 
end,  eat  the  leaves  of  tomato  and  tobacco.  There  are  two  species. 
P.  quinquemaculata  has    eight    V-shaped,  light- colored    markings  on 


Fig.  188.  —  Adult  oi  Phlegethontius  sexta.     Slightly  reduced.     Original. 


LARGE,   NAKED    WORMS  EATING    THE  LEAVES 


169 


each  side  of  its  body  ;  P.  sexta  has  only  seven  markings  instead  of  eight, 
and  these  are  merely  oblique  hnes.  Either  form  is  found  to  some 
extent  both  North  and  South.  The  full-grown  worm 
is  often  3  inches  long.  The  adult  is  a  large,  strong- 
flying  moth,  seen  in  evenings. 

When  the  worm  has  completed  its 
growth,  it  enters  the  soil  to  a  depth 
of  4  or  5  inches,  and  makes  a  cell. 
In  the  South  worms  that  mature  early 
will  emerge  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
same  summer,  thus  giving  a  second 
generation.  Emergence  of  the  adult 
moths  begins  in  June,  but  continues 
for  fully  two  months.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  adults  emerge  rather 
late  than  early,  and  the  result  is  that 
worms  are  most  numerous  in  August. 
Hand  picking  is  universally  prac- 
ticed. The  worms  may  be  poisoned 
by  dusting  lightly  with  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead.  The  moths 
may  be  killed  by  placing  a  few  drops  of  arsenide  of  cobalt  in  the  flowers 
of  jimson,  which  they  frecjuent.     Prepare  by  mixing  arsenide  of  cobalt, 


Fig.  189.  — 
Pupa  of  Phlc- 
gethontius  sex- 
ta. Slightly 
reduced.  Orig- 
inal. 


Fig.  190. —  Pu- 
pa of  Phlegethon- 
tius  quinquemac- 
ulata.  Slightly 
reduced.  Orig- 
inal. 


Fig.  191. 


Adult  of  Phl((jethontius  quinquemaculata. 
Original. 


Slightly  reduced. 


170 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


1  ounce,  water  1  pint,  and  molasses  or  honey  to  sweeten.     Fall  plow- 
ing will  kill  large  numbers  of  the  larvae  in  the  soil. 


Fig.  192.  —The  Celery  Caterpillar.     Original. 

The  Celery  Caterpillar  (Papilio  polyxenes  Fab.) 

Leaves  of  celery,  parsnips,  and  other  plants  of  the  same    family 
are  eaten  by  a  large,  naked  worm,  bright  green  or  yellow,  and  strikingly 


Fig.  193.  —  Adult  of  the  Celery  Caterpillar.     Slightly  reduced.     Original. 

banded  with  velvet  black.  The  adult  is  commonly  known  as  the 
black,  swallow-tail  butterfly.  There  are  two  generations  in  the  North, 
and  three  or  four  in  the  Southern  states. 

Usually  the  worms  are  easily  controlled  by  knocking  them  from  the 
leaves  and  crushing  them.     When  excessively  abundant,  they  may  be 


NAKED    WORMS  EATING    THE  LEAVES 


171 


killed  by  applying  arsenicals,  using  either  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris 
green. 

The  Zebra-caterpillar   {Mamestra  pida  Harr.) 

A  conspicuous,  naked  caterpillar,  two  inches  or  more  long  when 
full  grown,  feeds  on  garden  crops  of  various  sorts,  especially  beets. 


Fig.  194.  — The  Zebra-caterpillar.     Larva  and  adult.     Original. 

spinach,  celery,  and  peas.  The  body  is  yellow,  with  a  black  stripe  down 
the  back,  and  another  down  each  side.  The  head  is  red.  There  are  two 
generations,  the  first  feeding  in  early  summer  and  the  second  in  the  fall. 
The  species  hibernates  as  a  pupa.  Hand  picking  is  the  usual  remedy, 
but  they  may  be  poisoned  by  liberal  doses  of  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris 
green. 

The  Striped  Garden  Caterpillar  {Mamestra  legitima  Grote) 

This  species  closely  resembles  the  related  zebra-caterpillar.  It 
may  be  distinguished  from  the  other  by  its  darker  color  and  the  fact 
that  the  lateral  stripes  are  divided  into  two  portions,  the  upper  lighter 
than  the  lower.  The  feeding  habits,  life  round,  and  means  of  control 
are  the  same  as  for  the  zebra-caterpillar. 


172 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


The  Army  Worm  {Leucania  unipunda  Haw.) 
In  occasional   seasons   naked,    dull-striped  worms,  related    to   the 
common  cutworms,  become  abnormally  abundant,  march  from  field 

to  field,  and  de- 
vour corn,  wheat, 
oats,  and  other 
related  plants. 
Individuals  of 
this  species  are  in 
our  fields  every 
year,  but  we  do 
not  particularly 
note  their  pres- 
ence until  they 
reach  their  times 
of  unusual  abun- 
dance, abandon 
their  normal 
habits  of  remain- 
ing concealed 
during  daylight 
and  feeding  only 
at  night,  and  in 
their  search  for 
food  form  the 
devastating 
"armies."  The 
full-grown  worm 
is  about  1 J  inches 


Fig.  195.  —  Larva  and  work  of  long,  dark  in  gen- 
the  Army  Worm.  Slightly  en-  gj-al  color,  with 
larged.    Original.  .,  n       •  i 

three     yellowish 

stripes  down  its  back  and  a  stripe  down  each  side, 
stage  of  a  dull,  brownish  moth. 


Fig.  196.  — Work  of 
Army  Worms  on  tim- 
othy heads.    Original. 


It  is  the  younger 


NAKED    WORMS  EATING    THE  LEAVES 


173 


Adult  of  the  Army  Worm. 
Original. 


The  winter  is  passed  as  half-grown  hirva?  in  the  ground.  In  the 
spring  these  larvae  transform,  moths  emerge,  and  in  a  few  weeks  another 
generation  of  worms  is  at  work. 
It  is  this  generation  that  is  ai)t 
to  reach  such  numbers  as  to 
prove  a  serious  pest.  In  the 
North  there  are  three  broods  in 
a  season;  in  the  South  five  or 
six.  Normally  the  insect  is  held 
down  to  moderate  numbers  by 
its  natural  enemies. 

When  the  worms  reach  ex- 
cessive abundance  and  begin  to  travel  from  one  field  to  another, 
invasion  may  be  stopped  by  plowing  three  or  four  furrows,  and  main- 
taining a  thick  dust  in  these  if  possible.  As  worms  collect  in  the 
furrows  they  may  be  killed  with  a  drag,  or  by  sprinkling  them 
with  kerosene  or  kerosene  emulsion.  Another  measure  sometimes 
advisable  is  to  apply  a  heavy  dose  of  Paris  green  to  a  strip 
a  few  yards  wide  on  the  side  of  the  field  that  is  threat- 
ened. Or  poison  bran  mash 
may  be  used.  It  is  advis- 
able to  plow  in  the  fall  fields 
in  which  the  worms  have 
been  numerous  in  late  sum- 
mer, in  order  to  destroy  as 
many  of  the  hibernating 
larvae  as  possible. 


Fig. 


198.  —The  Fall  Army  Worm 
enlarged.     Original. 


Slightly 


The  Fall  Army  Worm  {Laphijgrna  frugiperda  S.  and  A.) 
This  species  is  related  to  the  "  army  worm,"  but  whereas  the  latter 
reaches  its  periods  of  occasional  destructive  abundance  in  the  early 
summer  months,  the  fall  army  worm  becomes  a  pest  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  summer,  usually  in  August.  The  full-grown  worm  is  dark  in 
color,  about  1^  inches  long,  and  has  a  yellowish  stripe  down  the 
middle  of  its  back.     Within  this  stripe,  on  each  segment,  are  four 


174 


FESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


small  dark   dots.     There  is  a  rather  dark  stripe  down  each  side  of 

the  body. 

Frequently  this  species  is  abundant  without  developing  the  instinct 

of  marching  in  "  armies."     It  feeds  on  alfalfa,  sugar  beets,  and  many 

other  field  and  garden  crops.  Winter 
is  passed  as  pupa  in  the  ground. 
There  are  two  broods  in  the  North; 
four  in  the  South. 

Control  depends  on  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  crop  attacked.  In 
limited  areas  apply  arsenicals.  In 
large  fields  the  worms  may  be  killed 
by  crushing  them  with  a  heavy  roller. 

Fall  plowing  and  disking,  combined  with  cultivation  where  feasible, 

will  kill  many  of  the  overwintering  forms. 


Fig.    199.  —  Adult    of    the    Fall 
Army  Worm.     Original. 


The  Beet  Army  Worm  (Laphygma  exigua  Hbn.) 

In  some  of  the  Western  states  this  species  has  periods  of  disastrous 
abundance  on  sugar  beets.  Its  invasions  occur  at  the  same  time  as 
those  of  the  fall  army 
worm.  The  larva 
resembles  the  latter, 
but  lacks  the  distinct 
black  dots.  On  each 
side  there  is  a  dark 
stripe,  along  the 
lower  edge  of  which 
is  a  series  of  white 
dots.  The  winter  is 
passed  as  an  adult 
moth.  There  are 
two  broods  in  the  summer,  and  apparently  the  normal  food  plants 
are  certain  weeds.  Clean  culture  is  indicated,  in  order  to  keep  down 
the  weeds  on  which  the  species  may  live  in  spring  or  fall.  The 
worms  may  be  poisoned  by  applying  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead. 


Fig.  200.  —Adult  of  the  Beet  Army  Worm. 
Slightly  enlarged.     Original. 


NAKED    WORMS   EATING    THE  LEAVES 


175 


The  Cotton  Worm  (Alabama  argillacea  Hbn.) 

Dark  greenish  caterpillars,  striped  with  black,  eat  the  leaves  and 

tender  shoots  of   cotton,  attack   beginning   in   a  small  way  early  in 

the  season,  and   increasing  as 

additional  generations   of   the 

pest    are    developed.       When 

quite  small,  the  caterpillars  are 

light  green,  marked  with  dark 

spots,  and  eat  only  the  under 

surface  of  the  leaf,  but  they 

soon   change   to   the  coloring 

noted   above,  and   their  work 

is  extended   to  include   all   of 

the  leaf  tissue. 

The  adult  is  a  brownish  moth  expanding  somewhat  over  an  inch,  and 

invades  the  Southern  states,  from  Mexico,  or  points  farther  south.     It 

is  abundant  only  at  rare  inter\'als.     Kggs  are  laid  on  the  leaves,  and  the 

pupal  stage  takes  place  in  a  folded 
leaf  on  the  plant.  There  are  three 
to  seven  generations  annually. 

The  application  of  arsenicals 
to  poison  the  worms  is  effective. 
The  ordinary  practice  is  to 
apply  dry  Paris  green,  dusting 

Fig.  202.-Adultof  the  Cotton  Worm.     ^^  ^n  the  plants   by  means   of 
Original.  bags  tacked  to  a  pole. 


Fig.  201.— The  Cotton  Worm.    Original. 


The  Alfalfa  Caterpillar  {Enrymus  eurytheme  Boisd.) 

The  leaves  of  alfalfa,  and  sometimes  of  other  plants,  are  eaten  by  a 
dark  green  caterpillar,  occasionally  abundant  enough  to  be  destructive. 
The  worm  is  naked,  one  inch  long,  has  a  white  stripe  down  each  side, 
obscurely  broken  by  small  red  and  black  dots,  and  sometimes  dark 
stripes  down  the  middle  of  its  back. 

The  adult  is  a  j^ellow  butterfly,  expanding  about  two  inches,  its  wings 


176 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN   AND   FIELD    CROPS 


bordered  with  black.     In  the  southwest  there  are  four  generations 
annually. 

Where  attack  is  severe,  fields  should  be  mow^ed.     Alfalfa  that  is 
pastured  is  much  less  liable  to  injury. 


Fig.  203.  —  Adult  of  the  Imported  Cabbage  Worm.     Original. 


The  Imported  Cabbage  Worm  {Pontia  rapw  Sch.) 

A  velvety  green  worm,  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  eats  large, 
irregular  holes  in  the  leaves  of  cabbage  or  cauliflower,  and  disfigures 
the  heads  by  deposits  of  excrement.     When  examined  closely,  the  worm 

is  seen  to  have  a  faint  yellow 
stripe  down  the  center  of  its 
back. 

The  adult  is  the  familiar 
white  "  cabbage  butterfly," 
often  observed  hovering  over 
fields  of  cabbage  or  cauliflower 
all  through  summer.  There 
are  from  one  to  four  or  five 
-The  Imported  Cabbage  Worm,  broods,  according  to  the  section 
Larva  on  leaf.     Original.  where  found. 


Fig.  204. 


SMALL,    NAKED    WORMS   KATIHG    TIIK   LEAVES  177 

Arsenicals  may  be  used  safely  on  cabbages  uutil  they  are  half  grown 
An  effective  spray  is  Paris  green  to  which  has  been  added  resin  soap 
sticker,    so  that  ,t  will  not  run  off  the  leaves.     Directions  for  making 
the  resin  soap  mixture 
are  given  elsewhere  in 
this     book.       Poison 
bran    mash,    as    pre- 
pared   for   cutworms, 
is  effecti\-e,  and  may 
be    used   safely   until 
the  plants  are  nearly 
full  grown.    Hellebore 
is  available  on  plants 
ready  for  market. 

The  Southern  Cab- 
bage   Worm    {Pontia 


Fig. 


205.  —Adult  of  the  Southern  Cabbage  Worm. 
Original. 


Vroiodice  Boisd.)  is  a  elosely  related  speeies  with  similar  habits. 
The  Cross-striped  Cabbage  Worm  {Evergestis  rimosalis  Guen.) 

The  larva  of  this 
species   is   bluish  in 
color,    about    three 
fifths  of  an  inch  long, 
and    has    numerous 
narrow     stripes     of 
))lack  across  its  back. 
It  feeds  on  cabbage 
heads   in    the    same 
manner  as  the  com- 
mon cabbage  worm. 
The   adult   expands 

,      about  one  inch,  and 

Fig.  206.  —  The  Diamond-back  Moth.    Enlarged  and       is     light     yellowish 
natural  size.     Original  ^i  •  -     .    ' 

wings  marked  with  black  or  brown.  the   margins    of  ts 


178  FESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 

The  normal  range  of  this  species  is  through  the  Gulf  states  and  neigh- 
boring territory.  Remedies  are  the  same  as  for  the  imported  cabbage 
worm. 

The  Diamond-back  Moth  {Plutella  77iaculipemiis  Curt.) 

Tiny  active  green  worms,  scarcely  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long 
when  full  grown,  eat  small  holes  in  the  leaves  of  cabbage,  and  occasion- 
ally become  so  numerous  that  notable  damage  is  done.  The  adult  is  a 
delicate  moth.  There  are  two  or  three  generations  in  the  North,  and 
half  a  dozen  or  more  in  the  South. 

The  remedies  given  for  the  imported  cabbage  worm  will  readily  hold 
this  species  in  check. 

The  Cabbage  Looper  (Autographa  brassicoB  Riley) 

At  the  same  time  that  the  imported  cabbage  worm  is  found  feeding 
on  cabbage  heads  this  species  is  likely  to  be  observed  at  similar  mis- 


FiG.        207. —  The       Cabbage  Fig.  208. —Adult  of  the  Cabbage 

Looper.     Original.  Looper.     Original. 

chief.  It  is  a  light  green  worm,  with  a  faint  whitish  stripe  down  each 
side,  and  moVes  with  a  looping  movement,  often  resting  with  the  middle 
of  its  body  elevated. 

Remedies  are  the  same  as  for  the  imported  cabbage  worm. 

The  Celery  Looper  {Plusia  simplex  Guen.) 

Occasionally  this  species  becomes  abundant  enough  to  be  a  pest, 
destroying  the  leaves  of  celery.     It  is  a  smooth-bodied  caterpillar,  and 


LOOPERS,    OR  MEASURING    WORMS 


179 


moves  with  a  looping  gait.  On 
each  side  of  its  body  is  a  row  of 
dark  dots  or  rings.  Hibernation 
takes  place  as  a  half-grown  cater- 
pillar. There  are  three  broods 
annually.  The  pest  may  be 
checked  by  the  use  of  arsenicals, 
preferably  Paris  green  and  lime, 
which  can  be  washed  from  the 
leaves  when  the  stalks  are  ready 
to  use. 


Fig.  200. 


•Adult  of  the  Celery  Looper. 
Original. 


The  Northern  Grass  Worm  {Drasteria  erechtea  Cramer) 

Clover  and  grasses  sometimes  are  damaged  by  a  fairly  large  ''  meas- 
uring worm,"  which  eats  the  leaves.     When  full  grown  the  worm  is 
Ij  inches  long,  striped  with 
gra}'   and    brown,    and    has 
the  habit  of  moviiig  with  a 


,-*»<^ 


Fig.  210.— The  Northern  Grass 
Worm.     Original. 


Fig.  211. 


-Adult  (>{  the  Xorthcni  Crass 
Worm.     Original. 


looping  gait.  It  transforms  in  a  nest  made  by  drawing  leaves  to- 
gether with  silk.  There  are  several  generations  in  the  course  of  a 
summer.  The  best  means  of  control  in  periods  of  excessive  abun- 
dance is  fall  plowing. 


The  Hop  Snout-moth  (Hypena  humuli  Harr.) 

The  foliage  of  hops  is  attacked  by  green  caterpillars  an  inch  long 
when  full  grown.     The  body  is  dotted  with  black,  there  is  a  dark  stripe 


180 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND    FIELD    CROPS 


down  the  center  of  the  back,  bordered  with  hghter,  narrow  hnes  and  a 
similar  light  hne  on  each  side  of  the  body.  When  crawling,  the  caterpillar 
raises  the  bod}'  sHghtly  in 
the  middle.  There  are  two 
broods  annually,  the  first 


Fig.  212.  —  Larva  of  the  Hop 
Snout-moth.     Original. 


Fig.  213.  — The  Hop  Snout-moth.     Shghtly 
enlarged.     Original. 


in  spring  and  the  second  in  midsummer.     The  species  hibernates  as 
an  adult  moth.     Spraying  with  arsenicals  will  readily  control  the  pest. 


Fig.  214. — Work  of  Endelomyia  rosce.     Original. 


Sawflies  on  Wheat 

Rarely  the  larvae  of 
two  or  three  species  of 
sawflies  are  found  feed- 
ing on  wheat,  eating 
the  leaves,  gnawing  into 
the  stems,  or  cutting 
off  the  heads.  In  the 
species  Dolerus  collaris 
Say  and  Dolerus  arven- 
sis  Say,  the  larvae  are 
dark  gray,  cylindrical, 
and  have  22  legs.  In 
the  species  Pachyne- 
matus  extensicornis 
Nort.,  the  larva  is 
greenish,  with  a  yellow 
head,  a,nd  has  20  legs. 


HAIRY   CATERPILLARS   EATING    THE   LEAVES 


181 


The  pupal  sta^o  is  passed  in  the  soil.     The  only  means  of  control  avail- 
able is  deep  fall  plowing. 

Rose  Slugs 

Three  species  of  "  slugs,"  the  larvae  of  sawflies,  commonly  infest  the 
foliage  of  roses  in  this  country.  The  surface  of  the  leaves  may  be 
skeletonized,  as  with  the  native  American  species,  Endelomyia  rosce 
Harr, ;  or  holes  may  be  eaten  in  the  leaves,  as  with  an  imported  species, 
the  Bristly  Rose  Slug,  Cladius  pecti- 
nicornis  Fourer ;  or  the  larva  may 
attack  the  edge  of  the  leaf,  eating 
out  large  sections,  as  with  another 
imported  species,  the  Coiled  Rose 
Slug,  Emphjtus  cinctus  L. 

Either  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris 
green  will  readily  poison  the  slugs. 
Or,  they  may  be   dislodged   by  a     fig.  215.  — The  Yellow-bear  Cater- 
strong  stream  of  water.  pillar.     Original. 

The  Yellow-bear  Caterpillar  {Diacrisia  virginica  Fab.) 

Rather  large  and  hairy  caterpillars  attack   the  leaves  of  a   great 
variety  of  vegetables  as  well  as  many  kinds  of  weeds.      Usually  they 

are  not  abundant  enough 
to  do  serious  injury.  A  full- 
grown  cat(Tpillar  is  2  inches 
long.  Th(^  hairs  arise  in 
tufts  on  the  l)ack  and  sides, 
and  vary  from  light  yellow 
to  brown.  The  adult  is  a 
light-colored  moth,  expand- 
ing 1|  to  If  inches,  marked 
with  a  few  small  dark 
dots.  There  are  two  gen- 
erations, the  second  lot  of 
caterpillars  appearing  in  August  or  September. 

Hand  picking  will  suffice  to  control  this  insect  when  present  in  moder- 


FlG.  21G.  —  Adult  of  the  Yellow-bear  Cater- 
pillar,    Original, 


182 


PESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


Fig.  217.  —  The  Salt-marsh  Caterpillar.     Original. 


ate  numbers.     When  very  abundant,  spray  with  Paris  green  and  Hme, 
making  the  dose  quite  heavy  as  the  caterpillars  are  resistant. 

The  Salt-marsh  Cater- 
pillar, Estigmene  acroea  Dru., 
is  another  hairy  caterpillar 
closely  paralleling  the  above 
in  appearance  and  habits. 
Its  body  is  darker,  and 
there  are  yellow  markings 
on  each  side. 
The     Hedgehog     Cater- 


FiG.  218.  — Adult  of  the  Salt- 
marsh  Caterpillar.     Original. 


pillar,  Isia  Isabella  S.  and 
A.,  is  thickly  covered  with 
close-cropped  soft  hairs, 
brownish  red  along  the 
middle  of  its  body  and  black 
at  either  end. 

Control  of  these  two 
species  is  the  same  as  for 
the  yellow-bear  caterpillar. 

Neither  is  apt  to  be  abun- 
dant enough  to  be  a  serious 
pest. 


Fig.  219.  — The  Hedgehog  Caterpillar. 
Original. 


WEB  WORMS   EATING    THE   LEAVES 


183 


.■■>-  -  *  -.  ■? 

Fig.  220.  —  Adult  of  the  Hedgehog  Caterpillar.     Original. 

The  Saddle-back  Caterpillar  {Sihine  slimulea  Clem.) 

This  i.s  a  short,  broad  caterpillar,  distinctly  spiny.     There  are  two 

especially  long  spines  at  each  end.     The  body  is  dark  at  either  end, 

light  green  in  the  middle,  and  in  the  center  of  the  green  area  is  a  dark, 

oval  spot.     The  spines  cause  irritation  if  they  come  in  contact  with  the 


Fig.   221.  — The     Saddle-back 
Caterpillar.     Original. 


Fig.  222. —Adult  of  the  Saddle-back 
Caterpillar.    Original. 


skin.     Care  should  be  taken  not  to  handle  the  caterpillar  or  to  touch  it 
inadvertently. 


The  Garden  Webworm  {Loxostege  similalis  Gn.) 

Corn  and  cotton,  and  sometimes  beets  or  garden  crops,  are  invaded  by 
hordes  of  yellowish  worms,  one  half  to  three  fourths  of  an  inch  long, 
marked  with  many  small,  dark  dots.  They  spin  webs  over  the  plant  and 
skeletonize  the  leaves.  The  pest  appears  early  in  the  season,  having 
migrated  from  pigweed,  which  is  the  normal  food  plant,  or  from  alfalfa, 


184 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


on  which  the  first  generation  often  is  raised.     There  are  from  three 

to    five    generations    annually.       The    adult    is    a    yellowish   moth, 

expanding  three  fourths  of  an  inch. 
Winter  is  passed  as  larva  or  pupa  in 
the  soil. 

In  garden  or  small  areas,  the  pest 
may  be  controlled  by  prompt  appli- 
cation of  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of 
lead.  Fall  plowing  will  help  for  the 
next   season.      Alfalfa    should    be   well 

disked.     No    pigweed    should    be    allowed   to   grow  in  or  near   the 

garden  or  field. 


^^f^^i^f^ 


Fig.  223.  — The  Garden  Web- 
worm.     Original. 


The  Sugar-beet  Webworm  {Loxostege  sticticalis  Linn.) 

The  work  of  this  species  is  practically  identical  with  that  of  the  garden 
webworm.  Recently  it  has  developed  into  a  serious  pest  of  sugar  beets 
in  some  of  the  Western  states.  The  larva  is  an  inch  long  when  full  grown, 
brownish  in  color,  with  a  narrow  dark  stripe  edged  with  white  down  the 


Fig.    224.— The   Sugar-beet   Web- 
worm.    Original. 


Fig.  225.  — Adult  of  the  Sugar-beet 
Webworm.     Original. 


middle  of  its  back,  and  a  light  stripe  down  each  side.  There  are 
numerous  dots  over  the  surface  of  its  body.  It  webs  up  the  foliage 
as  it  works. 

Winter  is  passed  in  a  silk  cocoon  in  the  soil.  The  moths  emerge  in 
the  spring  and  lay  eggs  on  the  leaves  of  pigweed  and  alfalfa.  There  is  a 
second  generation  in  July  and  a  third  in  August.  It  is  the  last  that  is 
usually  most  injurious  to  sugar  beets. 


WEB  WORMS   EATING    THE   LEAVES 


185 


Late  fall  plowing  will  break  up  the  winter  cells  in  the  soil.  Paris 
green  or  arsenate  of  lead  may  be  used  as  a  direct  means  of  control. 
The  poisons  should  be  applied  promptly,  at  the  first  sign  of  the  presence 
of  the  pest. 

The  Southern  Beet  Webwornl  {Pachyzancla  bipunctalis  Fab.) 

In  the  South  a  webworm,  similar  in  habits  to  the 'common  garden 
webworm,  has  been  found  feeding  on  beets.  The  full  grown  worm  I? 
three  fourths  of  an  inch  long,  slender,  dark  green  in  color.  The  adult  is  a 
yellowish  moth,  expanding  one  inch.  There  are  at  least  four  generations 
annually.  To  control,  apply  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green,  cither 
dry  or  as  a  spray,  as  soon  as  the  worms  are  first  observed.  The 
poisons  should  be  applied  promptly  to  be  effective. 

The  Cabbage  Webworm  (Hellula  undalis  Fab.) 

In  the  Southern  states  cabbages,  turnips,  and  related  crops  are  dam- 
aged by  a  small,  striped  caterpillar,  which  spins  webs  in  the  leaves  for 


Fig.  22G.  — The  Cabbage 
Webworm.     Original. 


Fig.    227.  — Adult    of    the   Cabbage 
Webworm.     Original. 


shelter,  feeding  exposed,  but  retiring  to  the  webs  when  resting.  When 
full  grown,  the  worm  is  half  an  inch  long,  yellowish  in  ground  color,  and 
ornamented  with  five  narrow  stripes  down  its  body.  Injury  is  most 
apt  to  occur  in  late  summer,  on  young  plants  set  out  for  fall  crops. 
Arsenicals  may  be  used  to  i)oison  the  caterj)illars,  since  they  are  not 
hidden  in  their  webs  when  feeding.  Either  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of 
lead  is  effective. 


186 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


The  Celery  Leaf-tier,  or  Greenhouse  Leaf-tier  (Phhjctcenia  ferrugalis 

Hbn.) 

A  variet}'  of  garden  and  field  crops  including  celery,  beets,  tobacco, 
and  others  are  damaged  by  this  insect.  In  addition  it  is  injurious  on 
plants  grown  under  glass,  especially  roses,  carnations,  and  chrysanthe- 
mums. 

The  larvae  usually  bend  a  part  of  a  leaf  over  on  the  rest,  or  fasten  two 
leaves  together  with  silk,  feeding  within.  They  are  whitish  caterpillars, 
with  a  green  stripe  down  the  middle  of  the  back.  The  head  is  light 
brownish,  and  is  marked  with  dark  dots.  When  mature,  the  caterpillar  is 


Fig.  228.  — The  Celery  Leaf - 
tier.     Larvae.     Original. 


Fig.  229. 


—Adult  of  the  Celery  Leaf- 
tier.     Original. 


three  fourths  of  an  inch  long.     There  are  two  or  three  generations  out- 
doors, and  an  indefinite  number  in  greenhouses. 

Since  the  caterpillars  feed  for  the  most  part  concealed,  poisons  must 
be  applied  early  in  order  to  be  at  all  effective.  Paris  green  or  arsenate 
of  lead  may  be  used.  Hand  picking  is  advisable  wherever  it  can 
be  practiced  economically. 


The  Clover-hay  Worm  {Hypsopygia  costalis  Fab.) 

Late  in  winter  the  lower  layers  of  clover  hay  in  stack  or  mow  often  are 
found  matted  together  with  silk.  When  the  hay  is  turned  over,  active 
wriggling  worms  are  dislodged.  In  spring  the  silk  cocoons  of  the  pupae 
will  be  observed,  here  and  there  in  the  mass. 

The  adult,  a  small  moth  expanding  less  than  an  inch,  emerges  in 


LEAF   ROLLERS   lyJURING    THE   FOLIAGE 


187 


Fig.  230.  —  Work  and  larva  of  the  Clover-hay  Worm.     Original. 


June  and  July,  and  laj^s  eggs  on  cured  clover  wherever  it  cart  be  found. 
A  second  lot  of  moths  are  out  in  late  summer. 

If  the  hay  is  used  up  clean  each  year,  and  any  refuse  is  destroyed,* 
there  will  be  practically  no  injury.  If  there  is  Hkelihood  that  all  will 
not  be  used  by  the  next 
July,  salt  down  the  first 
two  feet  of  hay  when  put- 
ting it  up,  using  two 
quarts  of  salt  to  the  ton. 
Do  not  place  new  hay  on 
top  of  remnants  of  last 
year's  crop.  The  old  hay 
should  be  removed  and  the 
mow  thoroughly  cleaned. 


Fig.  231.  —  Adult  of  the  Clover- 
hay  Worm.     Original. 


Fig.   232.  — Work  of    the    Oblique    Banded 
Leaf  Roller.     Original. 


188 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN   AND   FIELD    CROPS 


The  Oblique  Banded  Leaf  Roller  (Archips  rosaceana  Harr.) 
Roses  and  other  plants  in  greenhouses  and  occasionally  fruit  tree 
foliage  sometimes  are  badly  injured  by  active,  green  or  reddish  cater- 
pillars, three    fourths    of   an    inch  long,  which   roll   up    the   leaves, 
fasten  them  with  silk,  and  feed  within.     The  cater- 
pillar  has   an    indistinct    darker    stripe   down   the 
middle  of  the  back,  the  head  is  dark  brown  or  black, 
the  segments  of  the  body  are  rather  distinct.     The 
adult  is  a  brownish,  smooth  moth,  and  emerges  from 
a  pupa  formed  within  the  rolled  leaves. 


Fig.  233.  — Adult 
of  the  Oblique 
Banded  Leaf 
Roller.  Original. 


Fig.  234.  —  The  Bean  Leaf -roller.     Original. 


Hand  picking  is  often  the  best  means  of  control,  though  a  prompt 
use  of  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  will  check  the  pest,  pro- 
vided the  application  is  made  before  most  of  the  larvae  have  retired 
into  rolled-up  leaves. 


The    Bean    Leaf-roller 

(Eudamus  proteus  Linn.) 

Rather  odd-appearing 
worms,  1^  inches  long 
when  mature,  with  narrow 
neck  and  prominent  head, 
eat  the  leaves  of  beans 
and  sometimes  other  leg- 
umes. The  ground  color 
of  the  larva  is  yellow,  and 
its  body   is   dotted  with 


Fig.  235. 


Adult  of  the  Bean  Leaf-roller. 
Original. 


LEAF-MINERS  INJURING    THE  FOLIAGE 


189 


black.  It  occurs  principally  in  the  South,  and  there  are  several 
generations  annually.  The  pest  may  easily  be  checked  by  apply- 
ing arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green,  taking  care  not  to  use  too  heavy 
a  dose,  since  beans  are  suscei)tible  to  burning. 

The   Spinach  Leaf-miner  {Pcgomya  vicina  Lintn.) 

Whitish  mines  are  matl'  n  the  leaves  of  beets  and  spinach  by  a 
maggot  which  burrows  wil'.iin  the  tissues.  Several  of  these  mines  are 
seen  often  in  a  single 
leaf.  The  maggot  is 
the  larval  stage  of  a 
gray,  two-winged  fly, 
which  lays  its  eggs  mi 
the  under  side  of  the 
leaf.  The  pupal  stage 
is  passed  in  or  on  the 
ground.  There  are 
several  generations 
annually. 

Since  this  pest  lives 
also  in  lamb's-quarters, 
thorough  destruction 
of  this  weed  will  help  in  control.  Where  practicable,  infested  leaves 
should  be  removed  from  the  plants  and  destroyed.  No  successful 
sprays  have  been  devised. 

The   Tobacco   Leaf-miner  {Phthorimoea  operculclla  Zell.) 

This  pest  is  commonly  known  as  the  ''  split- worm."  It  is  a  very 
small  larva,  and  injures  the  older  leaves  of  growing  tobacco  by  mining 
within  the  leaf  tissues,  causing  small  blotches.  The  larva3  move  more 
or  less  from  place  to  place,  one  worm  making  several  mines.  There 
are  several  generations  in  a  single  season.  The  native  food  plant 
is  horse  nettle. 

Spraying  or  dusting  with  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green  will  kill 
many  larvae  as  they  start   their  new  mines.     Horse  nettles  should 


Fig.  236.  — Work  of  the  Spinach  Leaf-miner. 

Original. 


190 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND    FIELD    CROPS 


be  destroyed.     The  worms  may  be  killed  in  their  mines  by  pressing 
the  upper  and  lower  leaf  surfaces  together. 

The  Squash-bug  {Anasa  tristis  DeG.) 

Few  pests  of  the  garden  are  more  widely  or  more  unfavorably  known 
than  the  common  squash-bug.  As  soon  as  squashes,  cucumbers,  or 
melons  have  made  their  first  leaves,  the  overwintering  adults  appear 
and  begin  sucking  the  plant  juices,  causing  the  leaves  to  curl  up,  turn 


Fig.  237.  —  The  Squash-bug.     Eggs,  nymphs,  and  adult.     Original. 

brown,  and  die.  Before  long  one  will  find  the  first  batches  of  eggs,  and 
after  a  few  days  the  young  bugs  begin  to  appear,  to  add  to  the  damage. 
Usually  through  summer  all  three  stages,  egg,  young,  and  adult,  are 
to  be  found  on  the  vines  at  the  same  time.  The  adult  is  rusty  brown  to 
black,  five  eighths  of  an  inch  long,  and  provided  with  a  strong  sucking 
beak.  Its  head  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  its  body.  The 
young,  or  nymphs,  are  grayish  to  black.  They  tend  to  cluster  in  colo- 
nies, hiding  in  a  curled-up,  dead  leaf  when  not  at  work.     The  eggs 


LARGE,   SUCKING   BUGS   INJURING   FOLIAGE 


191 


are  laid  in  batches  on  the  under  side  of  a  leaf,  and  are  orange  or  red  in 
color.     They  are  easily  seen. 

The  adults  hibernate  in  old  vines  or  other  shelter.  There  is  one 
brood  annually  in  the  North,  but  two  or  even  three  in  the  South. 

The  young  may  be  killed  by  spraying  with  10  per  cent  kerosene 
emulsion.  Egg  masses  should  be  destroyed.  The  adults  may  be 
trapped  under  bits  of  Ijoard  or  stones,  where  they  should  be  looked  for 
frequently.  Destroy  the  vines  as  soon  as  the  crops  are  off,  in  order 
to  kill  the  bugs  not  yet  matured.  No  contact  spray  is  known  that 
will  kill  the  adults  without  also  seriously  injuring  the  vines. 


The  Harlequin  Cabbage-bug  {M urgaiitla  hidrionica  Hahn.) 

Cabbages,  cauliflower,  and 
related  plants,  in  the  South 
Atlantic  states,  are  badly 
injured  or  destroyed  by  a 
small,  gaudily  colored  bug, 
variously  known  as  the 
"calico  back,"  or  "terrapin 
bug."  The  leaves  of  the 
plants  attacked  shrivel  and 
turn  brown,  and  often  the 
plant  is  killed  outright. 

The    adult    l)ug    is    one 


Fig.  238.— Til. ■  ll.ii.Mnin  Cul)- 
bagc-bug.  Eggs,  nymph,  and 
adult.     Original. 

fourth  of  an  inch  long,  broad, 
shield  shaped,  and  strikingly 
marked  with  red  or  yellow,  and 
deep  blue.  The  3'oung,  or 
nymphs,  are  similar  in  appear- 
ance.   Close  search  of  the  leaves 


Fig.  239.  — Eggs  of  the   Harlequin   Cab- 
bage-bug.    Enlarged.     Original. 


192 


PESTS    OF    GARDEN  AND    FIELD    CROPS 


will  reveal  the  peculiar-looking  eggs,  like  white  barrels  with  dark 
hoops. 

The  adults  spend  the  cold  weather  in  rubbish  or  other  shelter,  and 
become  active  very  early  in  the  spring,  feeding  first  on  wild  mustard 
and  other  weeds  of  the  same  family.  There  are  several  generations  in 
the  South.     In  the  fall  the  bugs  feed  until  driven  in  by  cold  weather. 

The  most  important  control  measure  is  a  thorough  cleaning  up  early 
in  the  fall,  as  soon  as  the  crops  are  harvested,  combined  with  an  early 
planting  of  trap  crops  in  the  spring,  on  which  the  bugs  will  congregate 
and  where  they  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  with  25  per  cent  kerosene 
emulsion  or  with  pure  kerosene.  Kale  or  mustard  are  good  traps. 
After  the  bugs  are  on  cabbages  they  cannot  be  killed  by  spraying 
without  at  the  same  time  injuring  the  plants. 


The  Tarnished  Plant-bug  {Lygus  pratensis  Linn.) 

Truck  crops  of  all  kinds  are  injured  by  a  small,  brownish,  sucking 
bug.     Both  in  its  earlier  stages  and  as  a  winged  adult,  it  sucks  the 

juices  of  the  leaves  or  tender  stems. 
The  mature  bug  is  about  one  fifth 
of  an  inch  long,  and  somewhat 
obscurely  marked  with  dull  yellow 
and  brown. 

The  young  nymphs  may  be 
killed  with  a  contact  insecticide 
such  as  7  per  cent  kerosene  emul- 
sion or  tobacco  extract.  The 
winged  adults  are  too  active  to 
make  this  treatment  effective. 
Thorough  cleaning  up  of  all  rub- 
bish and  crop  remnants  in  the  fall 
is  the  only  other  means  of  con- 
trol. 

The  False  Chinch-bug  (Nysius  ericce  Sch.  {angiistatiis  Uhl.))  has 
similar  habits.  There  are  various  other  species  that  occasionally  are 
troublesome.     Control  measures  are  the  same. 


Fig.  240.  —The  Tarnished  Plant-bug. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.  Orig- 
inal. 


SUCKING   BUGS   INJURING    THE  FOLIAGE 


193 


The  Chinch-bug  {Blissus  leiicopterus  Say) 
One  of  the  most  destructive  insects  in 
the  history  of  American  farming  is  the 
species  of  sucking  bug  occasionally  at- 
tacking corn  and  wheat  in  countless  mil- 
lions, and  known  as  the  chinch-bug. 
When  it  is  numerous,  fields  are  blasted 
as  if  by  fire. 

The  bug  that  causes  this  damage  is 
quite  small,  one  fifth  of  an  inch  long  or 
less,  dark  or  black  in  color,  and  with 
thin,  white  wings  folded  across  the  body 
when  at  rest.  In  the  East  another  form 
is  found  with  wings  much  shorter.  The 
immature  stages  are  often  seen  with  the 
adults,  and  differ  httle  in  shape,  but  are 
wingless,  smaller,  and  when  young  are 
bright  red. 

The  adults  overwinter  in  clumps  of 
grass,  fallen  leaves,  weeds,  and  rubbish 
accumulating  along  fence  rows,  strips  of 
woodland,  and  especially  in  corn  shocks 
left  in  the  fields.  They  come  from 
these  places  in  spring,  and  lay  eggs  in 
grain  fields  or  on  suitable  weeds.  The 
young  appear  in  May  and  June.  These 
mature,  and  there  is  a  second  lot  of 
young  in  August  or  early  September. 

Where  small  grains  are  infested,  the 
swarms  of  bugs  are  driven  from  these 
at  harvest  and  travel  in  armies  to  corn, 
which  they  literally  overwhelm.  When 
large  numbers  of  adults  have  hiber- 
nated, the  most  striking  injury  may  be 


Fig.  241. —Chinch-bugs      on 
corn  plant.     Original. 


194 


PESTS   OF   G  A  ED  EN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


that  caused  by  adults  and  young  on  the  grains  to  which  the  adults 
have  migrated  in  the  spring.  This  is  especially  evident  where  corn 
shocks  have  been  left  standing  in  fields  seeded  to  small  grain. 

Meaures  of  control  are  various,  and  must  be  thorough  and  timely. 
The  most  important  measure  is  destruction  of  all  hibernating  places 
where  the  bugs  are  accustomed  to  spend  the  winter. 

Clumps  of  grass  should  be  raked  up  and  burned;  fence  corners 
cleaned  out ;  all  places  that  harbor  bugs  looked  after.  If  plowing  is 
depended  on  to  destroy  hiber- 
nating bugs,  it  must  be  done 
with  great  thoroughness,  else  the 
bugs  will  succeed  in  reaching  the 
surface  of  the  ground. 

Invasions  of  the  bugs  from 
newly  harvested  fields  can  be 
prevented  by  suitable  barriers, 
among  wliich  the  following  is 
known  by  experience  to  be  prac- 
ticable and  effective:  A  strip 
of  ground  along  the  side  from 
which  the  invasion  tln-eatens  is 
smoothed  and  compacted  by  dragging  over  it  a  heavy  plank. 
Along  the  center  of  this  path  a  narrow  line  of  coal  tar  or  road 
oil  is  poured.  The  fine  of  oil  need  be  only  half  or  tliree  quarters 
of  an  inch  wide.  At  intervals  of  three  or  four  rods  post  holes  are 
dug,  the  edge  of  the  hole  nearest  the  field  to  be  protected  just  inter- 
cepting the  line  of  oil.  The  invading  bugs,  when  they  reach  this  line, 
travel  along  it  until  they  come  to  the  angle  of  the  oil  line  and  the  hole, 
when  they  are  crowded  into  the  hole  and  are  unable  to  get  out.  They 
can  then  be  killed  easily  by  sprinkling  with  kerosene  or  kerosene  emul- 
sion, or  by  crushing  with  a  pole.  In  dusty  weather  the  oil  fine  will  need 
renewal  every  day  or  so,  while  the  invasion  threatens. 

If  a  field  of  wheat  is  seen  to  be  beyond  reasonable  hope,  it  is  best  to 
plow  it  under  at  once,  harrow  thoroughly,  and  plant  to  potatoes,  alfalfa, 
soy  beans,  garden  truck,  or  whatever  is  seasonable. 


Fig.  242.  —  The  Chinch-bug.   Enlarged 
and  natural  size.     Original. 


LEAFHOPPERS  INJURING    THE  FOLIAGE 


195 


In  meadows  where  severe  attack  is  noted  the  wisest  measure  is  to  cut 
and  then  burn  over,  although  this  probably  will  kill  the  grass  roots. 

In  moist  weather  chinch-bugs  are  killed  in  large  numbers  by  a  fungous 
disease.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  propagate  this  artificially,  but 
the  measure  cannot  be  depended  on  with  sufficient  certainty  in  times  of 
severe  attack. 

The  Tobacco  Suck-fly  {Dicyphus  minimus  Uhl.) 
In  Florida  a  black,  sucking  bug,  one  eighth  of  an  inch  long,  with  long 
greenish  legs,  attacks  the  leaves  of  tobacco  and  by  its  punctures  spots  the 
leaf,  making  it  wilt,  turn  brown,  and  crack.    The  younger  stages  feed  in 
similar  fashion  on  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  leaf.     There  are  several 
generations     annually.      Spraying 
with  tobacco  extract  will  kill  the 
immature  forms  and  check  the  pest. 


The  Beet  Leafhopper  {Eutettix 
tenella  Baker) 

A  very  small,  active  insect,  one 
of  the  ''leaf hoppers,"  swarms  on 
the  foliage  of  sugar  beets  in  count- 
less myriads.  The  leaves  of  plants 
attacked  usually  exhibit  a  char- 
acteristic appearance,  commonly 
known  as  "  curly  leaf."  The  edges 
are  rolled  in,  the  leaf  surface  is 
wrinkled,  and  growth  is  stunted. 
As  a  consequence  the  beet  puts 
out  many  fibrous  roots,  does  not 
reach  normal  size,  and  its  sugar 
content  is  low. 

The  adult  is  very  small,  whitish 
or  i^ale  green,  winged,  and  is  pro- 
vided with  strong   hind   legs,  en- 


FiG.    243. —  Beet   leaves   curled   by 
the  Beet  Leafhopper.    Original. 


196 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


Fig.    244.  —  The     Beet      Leafhopper. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.   Original. 


abling  it  to  jump  quickly  and  take  wing  readily.     The  younger  stages 
are   similar,   but   are   smaller   and  wingless.      Usually   the   hoppers 

appear  in  the  beet  field  suddenly, 
having  fed  first  on  some  other 
plant,  probably  species  of  weeds. 
In  hot,  dry  fields  conditions  are 
especially  favorable  to  the  pest 
and  unfavorable  to  the  beets, 
while  in  fields  where  the  reverse 
conditions  prevail  the  beets  are 
able  to  withstand  attack. 

Infested  fields  may  be  sprayed 
with  a  contact  insecticide,  making 
the  first  application  just  as  the 
young  nymphs  are  found  in  numbers,  and  repeating.  Kerosene 
emulsion  may  be  used,  diluting  the  stock  solution  with  8  parts  of 
water.  It  is  very  difficult,  however,  to  hit  all  the  insects  with 
the  spray.  A  drag  may  be  used  to  turn  the  leaves  over,  so  as 
to  help  to  make  the  application  more  thorough. 

Frames  coated  with  tar  dragged  through  the  fields  at  the  first  appear- 
ance of  the  adults  will  catch  many,  and  will  help  to  check  injury. 

The   Spring  Grain-aphis,  or   "  Green  Bug"   {Toxoptera   graminum 

Rond.) 

Occasionally,  in  recent  years,  oats,  wheat,  barley,  and  sometimes  corn 
have  been  damaged  to  the  extent  of  millions  of  dollars  by  this  tiny 
louse.  It  occurs  in  both  winged  and  wingless  forms.  The  latter  is 
about  one  twentieth  of  an  inch  long,  yellowish  green,  with  a  faint  dark 
line  down  the  middle  of  its  back.  Its  eyes  are  quite  black.  The 
winged  form  is  a  little  larger,  has  a  dark  thorax,  but  otherwise  is  of 
the  same  general  appearance. 

Attack  comes  on  suddenly  in  the  spring.  Countless  billions  of  the  lice 
appear  on  young  grain,  sucking  the  juice  of  the  leaves,  stunting  the 
growing  plants  or  killing  them  outright.  Reproduction  goes  on  rapidly. 
When  the  fields  in  a  section  attacked  are  destroyed,  or  the  plants  have 


PLANT  LICE  INJURING    THE  FOLIAGE 


197 


grown  and  thus  have  acquired  tougher  leaves,  the  hoe  develop  a  winged 
generation,  leave  the  section  where  at  work,  and  appear  as  suddenly  in 
other  regions  farther  north,  where  conditions  are  favorable  to  further 
multiplication. 

Late  in  summer,  as  the  grain  fields  mature,  the  lice  leave  them  and 
take  up  their  residence  on  grasses,  such  as  common  bluegrass  or  on  corn. 
In  the  fall,  when  winter  grain  has  sprouted,  many  move  back  to  the  new 
feeding  ground.  With  the  coming  of  cold  weather,  eggs  are  laid 
among  grain  plants.     In  the  more  Southern   states  there  are  living 


Fig.  245.  — The 
Winged  adult, 
size.     Original. 


Spring      Grain-aphis. 
Enlarged    and  natural 


Fig.  246.— The  Spring 
Grain-aphis.  Wing- 
less form.  Enlarged 
and  natural  size.  Orig- 
inal. 


females  in  existence  all  winter.  The  insect  is  able  to  breed  at  unusu- 
ally low  temperatures. 

Oats  and  wheat  are  the  favorite  food  plants,  but  the  list  includes  rye, 
barley,  corn,  and  several  species  of  wild  grasses,  especially  orchard  grass. 

Normally  this  insect  is  held  in  check  by  its  natural  enemies,  especially 
by  a  four-winged  parasite  which  attacks  the  lice,  laying  its  eggs  within 
their  bodies.  Severe  attacks  follow  warm  winters  combined  with  cold 
springs  —  a  condition  unfavorable  to  the  parasite,  but  favorable  to  the 
aphis. 

Direct  control  is  not  feasible.  Cleaning  up  volunteer  oats  and  other 
food  plants  in  the  fall  will  greatly  reduce  the  numbers  the  following 
spring.  Attempts  have  been  made  artificially  to  introduce  the  parasite, 
but  without  entire  success. 


198 


PESTS   OF   G  A  ED  EN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


The  European  Grain  Aphis    {Siphocoryne  avence  Fab.) 

In  summer  the  leaves,  stems,  and  heads  of  small  grains  sometimes  are 
literally  covered  with  this  species  of  plant  lice.  They  are  rather 
pale  green  in  color,  marked  with  short  bands  of  darker  green  on  the  back, 
and  for  the  most  part  are  wingless.  Usually  their  increase  is  quickly 
followed  by  a  similar  increase  in  parasites,  so  that  serious  injury  is 
averted,  but  occasionally  they  seriously  damage  young  wheat  in  the 
fall. 

The  lice  come  to  the  grain  fields  in  the  spring  from  fruit  trees, 
where  they  have  passed  the  winter  in  an  egg  stage,  and  have  already 
gone  through  one  or  two  generations  on  the  fruit  buds  and  foliage.  They 
return  to  the  trees  in  the  latter  part  of  summer  or  the  fall. 

No  direct  measures  of  control  on  grain  are  known. 


The  Corn  Leaf-aphis  {Aphis  maidis  Fitch) 
In  midsummer,  corn,  or  more  especially  sorghum  and  broom  corn, 
becomes  infested  with  bluish  green  lice  which  work  on  the  younger 
leaves,  and  on  the  tassel.  On  broom  corn  their  punctures  often  are 
followed  by  a  red  discoloration  due  to  a  bacterial  disease.  The  wingless 
female  is  usually  seen.  It  has  black  legs,  antennae,  and  honey  tubes, 
and  a  row  of  black  dots  down  either  side  of  the  back. 

Winged  generations  are  devel- 
oped as  the  corn  matures,  but  the 
alternate  host  plants,  if  any,  are 
unknown.  No  remedial  measures 
have  been  devised. 


The  Green  Peach  Aphis,  or  Spinach 
Aphis  {Myzus  persicce  Sulz.) 

This  plant  louse  often  is  known 
as  the  spinach  aphis,  or  "  green 
fly."  It  is  the  same  species  as 
the  louse  found  on  the  foliage  of 
peach  trees  early  in   the  season, 


Fig.  247.— The  Green  Peach  Aphi 
Enlarged.     Original. 


PLANT  LICE  INJURING    THE  FOLIAGE 


199 


and  kno^vn  there  as  the  ''  green  peach  aphis."  The  Uce  migrate 
in  early  summer  to  various  truck  crops,  especially  spinach,  cab- 
bage, lettuce,  and  celery.  They  are  light  green  or  yellowish  in 
color,  with  darker  markings  on  the  abdomen.  The  head,  antennae,  and 
honey  tubes  are  black.  This  species  is  never  covered  with  white 
powdery  secretion,  hke  the  cabbage  aphis.  It  is  controlled  by  spraying 
with  a  contact  insecticide,  preferably  tobacco  extract  or  5  per  cent 
kerosene  emulsion.  In  greenhouses  this  species  is  found  throughout 
the  year,  and  is  a  troublesome  pest. 


The  Melon  Aphis,  or  Cotton  Aphis   (Aphis  gossypii  Glov.) 

Melons,  cucumbers,  cotton,  strawberries,  and  many  other  plants 
are  subject  to  infestation  by  this  species  of  plant  louse.  It  usually  is 
seen  in  the  wingless  form,  and 
works  for  the  most  part  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  leaf, 
which  is  badly  curled  by  its 
attack.  Tender  growing 
shoots  are  a  favorite  feeding 
place. 

The  wingless  louse  is  dark 
green,  varying  to  yellow.  Its 
legs  are  light  yellow,  and  its 
honey  tubes  are  black,  long, 
and  tapering.  Its  length  is 
one  fifteenth  of  an  inch.  The 
young  stages  are  similar,  but 
are  smaller  and  wingless. 
Winged  individuals  are  de- 
veloped whenever  the  lice  are 
compelled,  tlirough  lack  of 
food  or  removal  of  a  crop,  to 
seek  new  feeding  ground. 
Consequently  attack  may  come  on  suddenly  and  unexpectedly.  The 
full  life  round  is  not  known,  and  probably  the  species   passes   one 


Fig.  248. 


Work  of  the  Melon  Aphis. 
Original. 


200 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


or  more  generations  on  some  alternate  host  plant,  and  sm'\'ives  there 
through  the  winter. 

When  found  on  garden  crops,  the  Uce  may  be  killed  by  spraying  with 

tobacco  extract  or  5  per  cent 
kerosene  emulsion.  Fumi- 
gation with  carbon  bisul- 
phide will  destroy  them, 
using  an  inverted  tub  as  a 
fumigating  chamber.  The 
dose  should  be  at  the  rate 
of  one  tablespoonful  of  car- 
bon bisulphide  to  a  20 
gallon  tub.  Aphis  punk 
may  be  substituted  for  the 
carbon  bisulphide  and  a 
light  frame  of  oiled  mushn 
may  take  the  place  of  the 
tub. 

Where  cotton  is  infested, 
direct  control  is  impracti- 
cable. In  this  case  adopt  rigorous  clean  culture  so  that  weeds  may 
be  kept  down  in  and  around  the  field. 

The  Pea  Aphis  (Macrosiphum  pisi  Kalt.) 
In  seasons  of  abnormally  dry  spring  weather  a  large  green  plant  louse 
becomes  abundant  on  peas.  The  adult  lice  are  one  eighth  of  an 
inch  long,  pea-green  in  color,  with  prominent  dark  red  eyes,  and  long  legs. 
They  feed  on  the  leaves  and  cluster  on  the  terminal  shoots.  Usually  they 
reach  their  greatest  abundance  in  midsummer,  and  disappear  in  August. 
The  lice  come  to  the  pea  vines  from  clover  fields,  where  they  have 
spent  the  winter  as  tiny,  black  eggs.  The  first  generations  Uve  on  the 
clover.  Winged  individuals  appear  as  the  season  advances,  and 
migrate  to  peas.     In  August  they  return  to  clover. 

Contact  sprays  may  be  used  in  direct  control  on  peas.     Tobacco 
extract  is  effective,  or  5  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion  may  be  employed. 


Fig.  249.  —  Wingless  and  winged  adults  of 
the  Melon  Aphis  on  Leaf.  Enlarged. 
Original. 


PLANT  LICE  INJURING    THE  FOLIAGE 


201 


If  peas  are  planted  far  enough  apart  in  rows  and  the  ground  is  dry, 
the  Uce  may  be  brushed  from  the  vines  and  killed  by  following  with 


Fig.  250. 


-The  Pea  Aphis.    Adults  at  work  on  vine.     Original. 


a  cultivator  between  the  rows.  If  the  ground  is  wet,  the  lice  may  be 
brushed  into  a  long,  shallow  pan.  A  Uttle  water  should  be  poured 
into  the  pan  and  covered  with  a  film  of 
coal  oil. 

The  Bean  Aphis  (Aphis  rumicis  Linn.) 

The  tender  shoots  of  beans  sometimes  are 
covered  with  thickly  clustered  plant  lice. 
The  same  species  is  found  commonly  on  pig- 
weed, dock,  and  other  weeds.  The  aphis  is 
one  tenth  of  an  inch  long,  black,  often  with 
a  few  whitish  dots  on  each  side>  the  an- 
tennae are  wliitish  in  their  central  seg- 
ments. 

Winter  is  passed  in  an  egg  stage  on  the 
twigs  of  wahoo  or  of  snowball.     The  lice  first 
migrate  to  weeds  and  then  to  beans.     In  late  summer,  they  return 
to  the  slirubs  named. 


Fig.  251.— The  Pea  Aphis. 
Adult  enlarged  and  nat- 
ural size.     Original. 


202 


PESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


On  beans  they  may  be  killed  by  spraying  with  tobacco  extract,  or 
with  5  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion. 

The  Cabbage  Aphis  {Aphis  hrassicce  Linn.) 

Cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  related  plants  are  subject  to  infestation  by 
a  soft -bodied  plant  louse,  which  collects  in  masses  on  the  surface  of 

the  leaves.  The 
Hce  are  green,  but 
are  covered  with  a 
whitish,  powdery 
secretion. 

Winter  is  passed 
as  eggs  on  old  cab- 
bage stumps  or 
heads  in  the  field. 
There  may  be  a 
dozen  or  more  gen- 
erations in  a  sum- 
mer. 
Spray  thorouglily 
with  tobacco  extract  to  which  soap  has  been  added,  or  with  5  per 
cent  kerosene  emulsion,  or  with  soap  solution,  1  pound  in  3  gallons 
of  water.  Dip  infested  seedlings  in  the  same  solution  before 
setting  out.  Dispose  of  crop  remnants.  Judicious  rotation  will 
help  in  delaying  attack.  Wild  mustard  and  shepherds-purse  should 
not  be  allowed  to  grow  near  cabbage. 


Fig.  252.  —  Work  of  the  Cabbage  Aphis.      Original. 


The  Potato  Plant-louse  (Macrosiphum  solanifolii  Ashm.) 

In  occasional  seasons  potato  vines  are  seriously  checked  in  the  latter 
part  of  summer  by  myriads  of  green,  soft-bodied  plant  lice,  which  suck 
the  juices  of  leaf  and  stem.  Spraying  the  fields  with  contact  insecti- 
cides, either  tobacco  extract  or  5  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion,  will  kill  the 
lice.  Since  the  pest  survives  the  winter  on  alternate  host  plants,  es- 
pecially shepherds-purse,  clean  culture  and  burning  over  waste  places 


THRIPS  INJUniNG    THE  FOLIAGE  203 

is   recommended.      The   potato   vines    themselves,    also,   should    be 
burned. 

The  Hop-aphis  {Phorodon  humuli  Sclir.) 

Hops  are  subject  to  infestation  by  a  green,  soft-bodied  louse,  one  eight- 
eenth to  one  tweKth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  male  plants  in  hopyards 
always  are  infested  first,  and  from  these  the  lice  spread  two  or  three 
weeks  later  to  the  female  or  fruiting  plants.  Their  attack  causes  the 
leaves  to  turn  yellow,  and  seriously  reduces  the  yield. 

Recent  studies  show  that  the  winter  may  be  passed  in  an  egg  stage 
somewhere  near  or  on  the  hop- vines,  although  it  is  known  that  the 
same  species  winters  also  on  plum  trees.  There  are  many  generations 
in  the  course  of  a  summer. 

Thorough  spraying  with  a  contact  insecticide,  such  as  tobacco  ex- 
tract or  5  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion,  will  kill  the  aphids.  Remedial 
treatments  should  be  begun  while  the  lice  are  still  isolated  on  the  male 
plants,  before  spread  has  started. 

The  Greenhouse  Thrips  {Heliothrips  hwmorrhoidalis  Bouch^) 

The  foliage  of  plants  in  greenhouses  sometimes  is  injured  by  a  very 
small,  sucking  insect  properly  known  as  a  thrips.  E\ddence  of  the 
work  is  seen  first  in  numerous  whitish  spots,  where  the  juices  of 
the  leaf  have  been  sucked  out.  These  spots  show  in  the  beginning 
more  plainly  on  the  lower  surface.  As  attack  goes  on,  the  spots 
spread,  forming  blotches,  dead  areas  appear  around  the  edges  of 
the  leaf,  the  fohage  wilts,  and  finally  drops  off.  The  surface  of  the 
leaf  is  covered  with  small  drops  of  reddish  fluid,  which  frequently 
turns  black. 

The  adult  insect  is  one  fifteenth  of  an  inch  in  length,  dark  bodied,  and 
though  it  has  wings  is  not  much  disposed  to  fly.  The  young  are  lighter 
colored,  and  have  no  wings.  They  suck  the  leaf  juices  just  as  do  the 
adults.     Three  or  four  weeks  are  required  for  a  generation. 

Usually  this  pest  is  controlled  successfully  by  fumigation  with 
tobacco. 


204 


p:ests  of  garden  and  field  crops 


The  Onion  Thrips    {Thrips  tabaci  Lind.) 

A  great  variety  of  truck  crops  and  some  flowering  plants  under 
glass  are  subject  to  injury  by  this  minute  form  of  insect  life. 
The  juices  are  sucked  from  the  leaves,  causing  numerous  tiny 
white  spots.  The  insect  itself  is  so  small 
as  almost  to  escape  notice.  It  is  yellowish, 
slender,  and  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  long. 
Eggs  are  laid  within,  the  leaf  tissue.  Several 
generations  may  be  developed  in  a  season. 

Crop  remnants  and  neighboring  weeds  should 
be  burned  in  the  fall.  Attack  may  be  checked 
by  spraying  with  tobacco  extract,  being  careful 
to  get  the  material  into  the  axils  of  leaves, 
since  such  places  are  favored  by  the  pest.  The 
insects  are  more  active  on  the  outer  parts  of 
the  plant  in  the  early  morning,  and  thus  are 
more  easily  reached  at  that  time. 

The  Tobacco  Thrips  {Euthrips nicotianceHinds) 

The  work  of  this  minute  insect  may  be  rec- 
ognized by  a  whitening  of  the  leaves,  especially 
along  the  veins.  The  adult  winters  in  tobacco 
fields,  and  breeds  rapidly  in  the  warmer 
months.  Before  tobacco  plants  are  up  and 
after  they  are  gathered  it  lives  on  weeds,  or 
often  on  oats. 
Spray  with  kerosene  emulsion,  diluting  the  stock  emulsion  with 
10  parts  of  water. 


Fig.  253.— White  spots 
on  onion  leaf  caused 
by  the  Onion  Thrips. 
Enlarged  to  twice  nat- 
ural size.     Original. 


The  Grass  Thrips  {Anaphothrips  striata  Osborn) 

Usually  the  work  of  this  insect  is  observed  rather  than  the  pest 

itself.     Various  grasses,  including  oats,  turn  white,  the  appearance 

being  known  as  "  silver  top."     More  closely  examined,  the  leaves  will 

be  found  covered  with  white  dots  where  the  juices  have  been  sucked  out, 


SMALL,   ACTIVE    WHITE   FLIES    ON  FOLIAGE 


205 


and  further  observation  will  disclose  the  minute,  slender  insects  that 
are  doing  the  mischief.  They  are  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  long, 
the  larger  winged  individuals  brownish  in  color  and  the  smaller  wing- 
less forms  somewhat  pinkish. 

Winter  is  passed  in  debris  at  the  base  of  the  plants.  There  are 
several  generations  in  the  course  of  a  summer. 

Remedies  are  rotation  of  crops,  or  burning  over  infested  fields  in 
winter. 

The  Greenhouse  White-fiy  (Aleurodes  vaporariorum  Westw.) 
Wherever  plants  are  grown  under  glass  this  troublesome  pest  is  sure 
to  put  in  its  ai)pearance,  and  injure  the  plants  by  sucking  their  juices. 


Fig.  254. 


Larvie  and  adult  of  the  Greenhouse  White-fly. 
Original. 


Enlarged. 


The  adults  have  four  wangs,  covered  with  a  whitish  powder,  and  are 
.  active  creatures,  flying  readily.     They  are  about  three  fiftieths  of  an 
inch  in  length.     The  young  are  flattened,  oval  in  shape,  and  have 
sucking  mouth  parts,  like  the  adults. 

The  insect  is  nearly  always  found  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves, 
and  prefers  the  younger  foliage  at  the  upper  part  of  the  plant.  The 
leaves  attacked  lose  their  \'itality,  and  if  the  insect  is  not  checked,  the 


206 


PESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


plants  will  die.  Cucumbers  and  tomatoes  usually  are  badly  infested, 
but  almost  an}^  vegetables  or  flowering  plants  grown  in  greenhouses 
may  be  attacked. 

The  most  effective  remedy  is  fumigation  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 
Some  benefit  will  be  derived  from  spraying  with  whale-oil  soap,  1^ 
ounces  to  1  gallon  of  water. 

Mealy  Bugs 

Slow-mo\ing,  oval,  soft^bodied  bugs,  one  tenth  to  one  sixth  of  an 
inch  long,  the  body  covered  with  a  whitish,  powdery  secretion,  infest 
various  plants  grown  under  glass.     In  the  South  they  are  a  nuisance 


Fig.  255.  —  Mealy  Bugs  on  melon.     Original. 

on  citrus  fruits.  The  Citrus  Mealy  Bug,  Pseudococcus  citri  Risso,  and 
a  closely  related  form,  Pseudococcus  longispinus  Targ.,  are  common 
species. 

The  young  are  small,  red,  and  fairly  active  at  first.  The  adult  males 
are  winged. 

Contact  insecticides,  especially  such  as  contain  soap  or  oil,  are  effec- 
tive remedies.  They  should  be  applied  with  considerable  force  in 
order  to  penetrate  the  waxy  powder  with  which  the  bodies  of  the 
insects  are  coated. 


MINUTE,   SUCKING   MITES  INJURING   FOLIAGE 


207 


The  Red  Spider  {Tetranychus  bimaculatus  Harv.) 

In  greenhouses,  throughout  the  year,  many  plants  are  subject  to 
attack  by  an  exceedingly  small  mite,  commonly  known  as  the  "red 
spider."  Very  fine  webs  are  spun 
on  the  under  surfaces  of  leaves 
or  over  flower  heads,  and  beneath 
these  the  mites  work,  sucking  the 
juices  of  the  leaves,  giving  them 
a  sickly  yellow  or  brown  appear- 
ance, and  finally  killing  the  plants, 
unless  checked. 

In  the  Southern  states  cotton 
is  injured  by  this  species,  the  leaves 
turning  brown  and  falling  off. 

Vegetables  grown  outdoors, 
especially  beans,  cucumbers,  and 
melons,  often  are  infested,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Southern  states. 
Rarely,  shade  trees  in  the  South 
are  injured. 

The  mite  is  reddish  or  greenish 
in  color,  one  fiftieth  of  an  inch 
long,  has  four  pairs  of  legs,  and 
its  body  is  marked  with  tw^o 
darker  spots. 

In  greenhouses,  fumigation  is 
not  effective.  The  mites  may  be 
controlled  by  frequent  spraying 
with  clear  water  or  with  soap  solu- 
tion. On  such  plants  as  are  not  injured  by  sulphur  an  effective 
treatment  is  a  spraying  with  water  1  gallon,  flowers  of  sulphur 
1  ounce. 

On  cotton  or  truck  crops  the  last-mentioned  spray  is  effective.     Or 
the  plants  may  be  dusted  with  a  mixture  of  sulphur  and  air-slaked 


Fig.  256. — Foliage  injured  and  webbed 
by  the  Red  Spider  ;  and  adult  Red 
Spider,  greatly  enlarged.     Original. 


208 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


lime.     Around  cotton  fields  weeds  should  be  kept  down,  and  in  the 
fall  all  dead,  infested  cotton  plants  should  be  burned. 

The  Clover  Mite  {Bryobia  pratensis  Garm.) 

Both  the  leaves  of  clover  and  the  foliage  of  various  fruit  trees  are 
attacked   by  a  small,   eight-legged   mite,   which  sucks   their  juices, 
causing  much    injury  when  abundant. 
It  is  a  tiny  red   creature   three    hun- 
dredths of   an  inch  in 
length. 

On  clover  no  direct 
remedial  measures  seem 
feasible.  The  mite 
passes  the  winter  as  a 
rule  in  an  egg  stage 
on  the  bark  of  neigh- 
boring fruit  trees.  It 
may  be  killed  there  by 
spraying  in  winter  witlv 
lime-sulphur  solution. 


Fig.  257.— The 
Clover  Mite. 
Enlarged  to 
fifteen  times 
natural  size. 
Original. 


Fig.  258.  — Eggs  of  the  Clover 
Mite  on  bark.  Enlarged  to 
ten  times  natural  size.  Orig- 
inal. . 


The  Cotton  Boll  Weevil  {Anthonomus  grandis  Boh.) 

No  pest  of  recent  years  has  wrought  greater  damage  than  this  in- 
vader from  Mexico.  It  is  now  distributed  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  cotton-growing  regions. 

Both  the  squares  and  the  bolls  are  attacked,  their  substance  eaten 
out,  and  their  contents  so  damaged  that  they  die  or  fail  to  produce 
fiber.  The  injury  is  wrought  both  by  the  adults  iu  their  feeding  and 
egg-laying  punctures,  and  by  the  grubs  which  hatch  from  the  eggs 
laid  within  the  bolls  or  squares. 

The  adult  boll  weevil  is  a  small  snout  beetle,  one  fourth  of  an  inch 
long.  It  is  brownish  in  color  through  most  of  its  existence,  but  lighter 
when  newly  emerged  and  darker  after  it  has  been  out  for  two  or  three 
weeks.  The  grub,  found  only  within  the  squares  or  bolls,  is  whitish, 
heavy  bodied,  and  has  a  dark  head:     It  has  no  feet. 


SNOUT  BEETLES  ATTACKING  BUD    OR  FRUIT 


209 


In  the  early  spring  the  adult  beetles  appear  in  the  cotton  fields 
from  their  winter  hiding  places.  Usually  there  are  but  few  of  them  at 
this  time.  When  the  squares 
begin  to  form,  eggs  are  laid 
within  them,  and  as  the  grub 
develops  the  square  usually 
falls  to  the  ground.  A  pupal 
stage  is  passed  within  the 
square,  and  soon  a  second 
generation  of  adults  is  out. 
Eggs  are  now  laid  in  the 
squares  as  before.  There  are 
four  or  five  generations  in 
the    course    of    the    season. 

When  the   squares   are   no   longer  available,   eggs  are  laid   in   the 
bolls  in  similar  fashion. 

Hibernation  of  the  adult  weevils  does  not  begin  until  late  in  the 
season,  long  after  the  regular  crop  of  cotton  is  picked.  When  the 
first  frosts  come,  the  adults  seek  shelter  in  which  to  spend  the  winter, 
while  the  immature  stages  die.  At  this  time  the  adults  fly  to 
considerable  distances,  seeking  places  to  hibernate. 


Fig.  259. 


Work  of  the  Cotton  Boll  Weevil. 
Original. 


Fig.  260.  —  Larva  of  the  Cotton  Boll 
Weevil,  enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


Fig.  261.  — Adult  Cotton  Boll  Weevil. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.   Original. 


210 


PESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


The  most  important  means  of  control  is  a  thorough  cleaning  up  of 
the  cotton  fields  as  soon  as  the  crop  is. gathered,  together  with  destruc- 
tion of  all  stalks,  dead  bolls,  and  crop  remnants.  At  this  time  the 
existing  adult  beetles  are  not  yet  ready  to  hibernate,  and  there  are 
many  grubs  and  pupae  in  the  field  that  would  later  become  beetles, 
coming  out  at  the  normal  time  of  hibernation.  These  immature 
stages  are  thus  destroyed,  and  the  adults,  left  with  no  cotton  plants 

to  feed  on,  are  for  the  most  part  starved, 
or  are  unable  to  get  to  suitable  places  to 
spend  the  winter.  In  destroying  the  stalks 
it  is  best  to  plow  them  out,  leaving  a  row 
now  and  then,  at  once  raking  th^  loose 
plants  to  the  standing  row  and  burning 
the  entire  lot. 

Early  in  the  season,  when  it  is  seen 
that  squares  are  being  badly  punctured, 
and  are  dropping  off  in  large  numbers,  a 
chain  drag  may  be  drawn  between  the 
rows  so  as  to  draw  the  squares  into  the 
middles,  where  they  will  get  the  full  force 
of  the  sun.  Most  of  the  grubs  within  will 
be  killed  by  the  heat. 

It  is  possible  to  poison  a  large  percent- 
age of  the  adult  weevils  by  applying  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  to 
the  squares  with  a  blower  or  powder  gun,  making  the  first  applica- 
tion as  soon  as  squares  begin  to  form,  and  repeating  as  necessary. 

Any  practice  that  will  help  to  get  the  cotton  planted  and  matured 
early  will  greatly  help  to  avoid  serious  injury,  because  the  cotton 
will  then  be  well  along  before  the  weevils  have  become  numerous. 
Thus,  winter  plowing,  early  spring  planting,  and  the  use  of  early  ma- 
turing varieties,  together  with  frequent  cultivation  in  the  growing 
season,  are  advisable.  By  this  means  the  plants  are  stimulated 
to  quick,  vigorous  growth,  and  escape  serious  attack  at  the  period 
when  they  are  more  susceptible  to  injury. 


Fig.  262.  —  Pupa  of  the  Cot- 
ton Boll  Weevil.  Enlarged 
and  natural  size.    Original. 


LARGE    WORMS  BORING   IN  BUD    OR  FRUIT  211 

The  Cowpea  Curculio  {Chalcodermus  ceneus  Boh.) 

The  pods  of  cowpeas  are  punctured,  and  early  in  the  spring  young 
cotton  plants  are  injured,  by  the  feeding  of  this  beetle.  The  immature 
stage  or  grub  lives  within  the  growing  "  peas,"  and  ruins  them  for 
seed.  The  adult  beetle  is  one  fourth  of  an  inch  long,  bronze  black, 
its  thorax  and  wing  covers  deeply  pitted.  When  working  on  cotton, 
the  beetles  puncture  the  tender  stems. 

The  insect  hibernates  as  an  adult.  Eggs  are  laid  in  cowpeas  as  soon 
as  the  pods  are  large  enough.     The  larva  enters  the  ground  to  pupate. 

No  direct  control  measures  are  known.  If  cowpeas  are  badly  in- 
fested, it  is  unwise  to  follow  with  cotton  in  the  same  field. 

The  Corn  Ear-worm  (Heliothis  obsoleta  Fab.) 

Synonyms:    The  Cotton  Boll-worm;    the  Tomato  Fruit-worm;    the 
Tobacco  False  Budworm 

Widespread  injury  to  valuable  garden  and  field  crops  is  due  to  the 
ravages  of  this  insect. 

The  full-grown  worm  is  variable  in  markings,  but  usually  is  dull 
greenish  or  brownish  in  color,  with  indistinct  stripes  or  spots,  and  is 


Fig.  263.  —  Larva   and  work  of   the   Corn   Ear-worm.     Reduced  to   one  half 
">  natural  size.     Original. 

about  1^  inches  long.     It  is  naked,  and  the  skin  looks  somewhat 
greasy,  Uke  that  of  cutworms. 

On  corn  the  worms  feed  in  the  young  kernels  and  eat  the  tender 


212  FESTS   OF   G  A  ED  EN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 

silk  inclosed  within  the  husk.    They  are   especially  destructive  to 
sweet  corn. 

On  tomatoes  they  bore  into  the  fruit  and  eat  more  or  less  of  the 
pulp  within. 

Cotton  is  attacked  at  the  time  that  the  corn  in  southern  fields  is 

maturing,  and  therefore  is  no 
longer  suitable  for  food.  The 
worms  eat  into  the  bolls. 

Tobacco  is  subject  to  injury 
at  the  same  season,  the  larvae 
eating  into  the  buds  and  stalks, 
though  in  Florida  the  plants 
are  attacked  also  early  in  the 
season  and  the  leaves  muti- 
FiG.  264.— Adult  of  the  Corn  Ear-worm.  lated  before  they  have  un- 
^"^^^^^-  folded. 

The  adult  is  a  yellowish  or  brownish  moth,  expanding  a  little  more 
than  If  inches.  There  are  two  broods  in  the  North,  and  from  four  to 
six  in  the  South.  The  eggs  of  the  first  generation  are  laid  on  any  avail- 
able food  plant,  depending  on  the  section  of  country.  Succeeding 
broods  do  the  greater  part  of  the  injury.  Winter  is  passed  as  a  pupa 
in  the  soil,  in  a  peculiar  burrow  constructed  by  the  larva,  which  de- 
scends several  inches,  turns,  and  makes  a  gallery  nearly  to  the  surface 
of  the  ground  for  the  use  of  the  moth  in  emerging,  and  then  retires  to 
the  bottom  of  the  gallery  to  transform. 

One  of  the  best  means  of  control  is  fall  plowing  and  cultivation, 
so  as  to  break  up  the  exit  galleries  in  the  soil. 

Prevention  of  attack  by  the  later  broods  often  is  difficult.  Early 
planted  corn  is  more  likely  to  escape  injury.  The  same  is  true  of 
cotton.  On  cotton,  arsenical  poisons  are  used  with  good  results, 
usually  applied  dry.  Strips  of  late  corn  planted  among  cotton  after 
the  latter  is  under  way  will  come  into  silk  at  the  right  time  to  divert 
attack  from  the  cotton.     Cowpeas  may  be  used  in  the  same  way. 

On  tobacco  buds  an  effective  remedy  consists  in  poisoning  the 
worms  with  a  mixture  of  corn  meal  and  dry  arsenate  of  lead,  using  1 


WORMS  BORING   IN  BUD    OR  FRUIT  213 

teaspoonful  of  the  arsenate  of  lead  to  a  quart  of  meal.     Apply  the 
mixture  dry,  sprinkling  it  on  or  into  the  buds. 

The  same  remedy  is  available  when  the  worms  are  troublesome, 
boring  into  tomatoes. 

The  Tobacco  Budworm  (Chloridea  virescens  Fab.) 
Injury  by  this  species  becomes  noticeable  late  in  the  season,  the 
larva  boring  into  the  rolled-up  leaves  or  buds,  and  later  into  seed  pods. 
In  appearance  the  caterpillar  resembles  the  boll-worm,  but  is  smaller, 
and  its  stripes  are  narrower  and  more  distinct.  The  life  round  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  boll- worm,  and  the  means  of  control  are  the 
same. 

Cutworms  attacking  Cotton  Bolls 

Certain  species  of  cutworms  frequently  climb  the  stalks  of  cotton 
and  bore  into  the  bolls.  The  one  most  commonly  observed,  Prodenia 
ornithogalli  Guen.,  may  be  recognized  by  two  rows  of  triangular  black 
spots  down  its  back,  edged  with  very  narrow  light  stripes.  One  or 
more  earlier  generations  are  passed  on  weeds. 

Application  of  arsenicals  will  help  to  check  the  pest.  Use  the 
same  remedies  recommended  for  the  boll-worm  or  "corn  ear- worm" 
attacking  cotton. 

The  Cotton  Square-borer  (  Uranotes  melinus  Hbn.) 
Cotton  squares  are  bored  into  and  their  inner  substance  eaten  by  a 

flat,  oval  worm,  clear  green  in  color,  its  head  drawn  in  beneath  the 

front  part  of  its  body. 

Cowpeas,  and  certain  weeds,  are  favorite  food  plants,  as  well  as 

cotton.     Eggs  are  laid  on  the  leaves,  and  the  larvae  feed  exposed  for  a 

few  days  before  boring  into  the  squares.     The  adult  is  a  deep  red 

butterfly,   with  shining  red  spots  at   the  lower  edge  of   the  hind 

wings. 

Dusting  or  sprajang  with  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green  will  kill 

the  young  worms  if  the  application  is  made  early,  before  they  bore 

into  the  squares. 


214  FESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND  FIELD    CROPS 

The  Wheat-head  Army-worm  {Meliana  albilinea  Hbn.) 

Naked,  dark  brown  or  green,  striped  caterpillars  eat  into  the  heads 
of  wheatj  or  other  small  grains,  and  in  the  same  way  are  destructive 


Fig.  265.  —  The  Wheat-head  Army-worm.     Larva  and  adult,  natural  size,  and 
work  in  wheat  head,  enlarged.     Original. 


wo  EMS  BORING   IN  FRUIT 


215 


on  the  heads  of  timothy.  Their  work  is  confined  largely  to  the  ker- 
nels, the  chaff  falling  to  the  ground. 

They  are  at  work  in  June  and  July,  and  a  second  brood  appears  in 
the  later  summer  months.  The  adult  is  a  brownish  yellow  moth. 
At  the  end  of  summer  the  full-grown  caterpillars  of  the  second  brood 
enter  the  ground,  where  the  winter  is  passed. 

Early  fall  pasturing  will  starve  out  the  second  brood  of  caterpillars. 
With  tliis  should  be  combined  the  destruction  of  wild  grasses,  for  the 
worms  will  feed  on  these  in  lack  of  their  favorite  food.  Stock  may  be 
removed  from  the  pastures  by  the  middle  of  September  if  desired. 
Early  fall  plowing,  where  feasible,  will  accomplish  somewhat  the 
same  result. 

The  Pickle  Worm  {Diaphania  nitidalis  Cramer) 

In  the  Southern  states  ripening  melons,  squashes,  and  cucumbers 
are  rendered  wortliless  by  a  whitish  or  greenish  worm,  half  an  inch 


Fig.  266.  —The  Pickle  Worm.     Original. 


to  an  inch  long,  which  bores  holes  into  the  fruit,  feeding  both  on  the 
rind  and  inside.     Blossoms,  leaves,  and  stems,  also,  are  injured,  but  the 
damage  to  the  fruit  is  the  most  serious. 
The  adult  is  a  handsome  moth,  brownish  in  color,  with  large,  clear 


216 


FESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


areas  in  its  wings,  and  expanding  one  to  one  and  a  quarter  inches. 
At  the  end  of  the  abdomen  is  a  brush  of  brown  hairs.  There  are  four 
generations  in  a  season.  The  winter  is  passed  as  a  pupa  in  dried  and 
folded  leaves  on  the  ground.  Usually  the  moths  are  not  abundant 
until  July. 


Fig.  267. 


■Section  through  melon  showing  work  of  the  Melon  Caterpillar. 
Original. 


The  most  effective  means  of  control  is  the  planting  of  early  squashes, 
as  trap  crops,  among  the  melons.  The  insect  will  choose  the  squashes 
for  its  egg  laying,  and  if  the  melons  are  of  an  early  variety,  they  will 
practically  escape  injury.  Destruction  of  rubbish  and  fall  plowing  will 
help. 

The  Melon  Caterpillar  {Diaphania  hyalinata  Linn.) 

Damage  by  the  melon  worm 
is  similar  to  that  done  by 
the  pickle  worm.  Squashes, 
melons,  cucumbers,  and  re- 
lated plants  are   subject   to 


Fig. 


268.  — The    Melon    Cater- 
pillar.   Original. 


Fig. 


269.— Adult  of   the  Melon  Cater- 
pillar.    Original. 


SMALL    WORMS    WORKING   IN   THE  SEED  217 

attack,  the  worms  first  eating  the  foUage  and  then  boring  into  the 
fruit.  The  full-grown  worm  is  f  to  1^  inches  long,  yellowish  in  color, 
and  marked  with  two  narrow  light  stripes  down  its  back.  The  adult 
has  white  wings,  broadly  bordered  with  dark  brown.  The  winter  is 
passed  as  a  pupa  in  folded  leaves  on  the  ground.  There  are  three  to 
four  generations  annually. '  The  species  is  most  injurious  in  the  Gulf 
states. 

Since  the  worms  devour  the  foliage  before  feeding  in  the  fruit,  the 
best  remedy  is  to  apply  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green  to  the  vines. 
Crop  remnants  should  be  cleaned  up,  and  fall  plowing  is  advisable. 
Early  squashes  may  be  used  as  traps,  to  divert  attack  from  melons. 

The  Pea-moth  {Cydia  (Semasia)  nigricana  Steph.) 

In  northern  sections  growing  peas  are  subject  to  infestation  by  a 
cylindrical,  light  yellow  larva,  half  an  inch  long  when  full  grown, 
which  works  in  the  young  seed  within  the  growing  pod.  Infested 
pods  ripen  early,  crack  open,  and  the  worm  then  emerges  and  goes 
into  the  ground  to  transform.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  pods  about 
the  close  of  the  blossoming  season.  Arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green 
applied  at  this  time  and  again  in  ten  days  will  check  the  pest.  Early 
peas  are  not  usually  much  infested,  and  the  same  is  true  of  very  late 
varieties. 

The  Clover  Seed-caterpillar  (Laspeyresia  {Enarmonia)  interstinctana 

Clem.) 

Tiny,  whitish  worms,  a  third  of  an  inch  long  when  full  grown,  work 
in  the  growing  heads  of  clover,  eating  the  florets  or  the  soft,  forming 
seeds.  In  their  work  they  hollow  out  a  cavity  in  the  head,  which  fails 
to  bloom  or  often  blooms  on  one  side  only.  If  a  head  is  torn  open, 
the  caterpillar  will  be  found  inside. 

The  adult  moth  appears  at  the  time  of  the  first  blooming  of  clover. 
Succeeding  generations  are  on  the  wing  at  the  time  of  the  second 
blooming,  and  again  in  late  summer.  Hibernation  takes  place  as 
pupae  in  silk  cocoons  on  the  ground,  or  sometimes  as  adults. 


218 


PESTS    OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


In  control,  make  the  first  cutting  of  hay  early  in  June,  while  the 
caterpillars  are  still  in  the  heads,  and  store  this  hay  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. Pasture  clover  fields  in  the  fall.  Plant  new  fields  remote  from 
old  ones.  Plow  up  old  fields  in  the  fall  or  early  spring,  and  in  the 
spring  harrow  and  roll. 


Fig.  270. —  The  Clover 
Seed-caterpillar.  Adult, 
enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original. 


Fig.  271.  — Work  of  the  Wheat  Midge. 
Enlarged  to  three  times  natural  size. 
Original. 


The  Wheat  Midge  {Itonida  (Contarinia)  tritici  Kby.) 

The  "  red  weevil  "  is  another  common  name  of  this  insect.  When 
it  is  present  in  large  numbers  in  the  heads  of  wheat,  oats,  or  rye,  it 
gives  them  a  pinkish  tinge.  The  damage  is  done  by  a  tiny  pink  mag- 
got, which  feeds  on  the  forming  kernel,  within  the  protection  of  the 
glumes.  As  a  result  of  its  work  the  ripe  kernel  is  slirunken,  and  the 
yield,  especially  of  wheat,  seriously  reduced. 

When  mature,  the  maggot  falls  to  the  ground,  spins  a  delicate  cocoon, 
and  remains  there  until  the  next  spring,  when  the  tiny,  gnathke  adult 
comes  out,  ready  to  lay  eggs  again  on  the  forming  heads. 

Fall  plowing  is  an  effective  remedy.  Instead  of  this  the  stubble 
may  be  burned  over.  If  clover  is  growing  in  the  stubble,  burn  in  winter 
when  the  ground  is  frozen,  so  that  the  roots  may  not  be  injured. 


MINUTE    WORMS    WORKING   IN   THE  SEED 


219 


The  Sorghum  Midge  {Contarinia  sorghicola  Coq.) 

Heads  of  sorghum  are  attacked  by  the  larva  of  a  minute  two- 
winged  insect  or  "  midge,"  preventing  the  formation  of  seed.  If 
infested  heads  are  examined,  the  seeds  will  be  found  shriveled,  while 
beside  them  may  be  seen  a  tiny  grub.  Profitable  crops  of  seed  can- 
not be  secured  where  the  midge  is  abundant. 

The  first  generations  of  the  midge  are  passed  in  other  plants  that 
mature  heads  earlier,  notably  Johnson  grass.  By  the  time  the  sor- 
ghum is  sufficiently  mature  the  midges  are  numerous.  Eggs  are  laid 
witliin  the  developing  seeds. 

Remedial  measures  include  destruction  of  Johnson  grass,  and  clean 
harvesting  in  the  fall. 


The  Clover  Flower-midge  {Dasijneura  leguminicola  Lint.) 

The  presence  of  the  clover 
flower-midge  is  recognized  by 
the  fact  that  the  florets  of  clover 
bloom  fail  to  develop  normally, 
become  shrunken,  and  the  whole 
head  lacks  color. 

The  adult  insect  is  a  minute, 
gnatlike  creature  with  long  legs 
and  dusky  wings.  Eggs  are  laid 
in  the  clover  head,  and  the  larva 
feeds  in  the  ovaries,  preventing 
the  normal  expansion  of  the  floret 
and  the  development  of  seed. 
A  pupal  stage  is  passed  in  the 
ground,  followed  by  a  second 
brood  at  the  time  of  the  second 
blooming  of  clover.  Winter  is 
passed  in  the  soil. 

In  fields  containing  mostly 
clover  and  httle  timothy  it  is 


/' 

t^ 

wkj- 

^^^KSr     iiriMr  ■*-' 

I 

Fig.  272.  —  Clover  head  showing  irregu- 
lar blooming  caused  by  the  Clover 
Flower-midge.     Original. 


220 


PESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


feasible  to  cut  for  hay  early, 
before  the  larvae  have  done  much 
damage  or  completed  their 
growth.  The  second  crop  will 
then  be  free  of  attack. 

Where  timothy  is  combined 
with  clover,  the  insect  is  con- 
trolled by  clipping  back  the 
growth  in  May,  thus  retarding 
the  blooming  of  clover  past  the 
danger  point,  since  the  heads 
will  not  be  at  the  blooming 
unginai.  period    when    the    midges   are 

flying.     Here  again  the  second  blooming  will  be  exempt. 

The  Clover  Seed  Chalcid  Fly  (Bruchophagus  funebris  Row.) 

The  larva  or  grub  of  this  tiny  insect  lives  in  the  ripening  seeds  of 
clover  or  alfalfa.  Its  presence  is  seldom  suspected,  and  the  only  evi- 
dence may  be  the  shortage  of  the  seed  and  the  large  quantity  of  empty 
hulls  blown  out  with  the  chaff. 


Fig.  273.— The  Clover  Flower-midge. 
Florets  showing  arrested  development. 
Original. 


Fig.  274.  —  The  Clover  Flower-midge.     Section  through  floret,  showing  work 
and  larva.     Enlarged  and  natural  size.    Original. 


SUCKING   BUGS  ATTACKING   FRUIT   OR  BUD 


221 


The  adult  is  a  very  small,  black,  four- 
winged  fly.  Eggs  are  laid  in  the  de- 
veloping seed  while  it  is  still  tender. 
The  grub  eats  out  the  contents  of  the 
seed,  and  transforms  in  the  empty  shell. 
A  second  brood  of  flies  then  emerges 
and  lays  eggs  in  the  developing  seeds 
of  the  second  crop  of  clover.  The  winter 
is  passed  in  seeds  that  have  fallen  to 
the  ground  or  in  those  still  remaining 
in  uncut  heads. 

Clipping  back   clover  to  retard   the 
blooming  season   will  give   immunity. 
The  heads  will  not  then  be  in  a  suitable  stage  of  growth  at  the  time 
the  adults  are  on  the  wing. 


Fig.  275.— The  Clover  Seed 
Chalcid  Fly.  Adult,  greatly- 
enlarged.     Original. 


y^  % 


Fig.  276.— Work  of   the    Clover    ►Seed    Chalcid    lly, 
natural  size.     Original. 


Enlarged   to   six   times 


Plant-bugs   attacking    Cotton   Bolls    {Pentatoma  ligata    Say,   Nezara 
hilaris  Say,   Dysdercus  sutarelliis  H.  Schf.,  and  others) 

Injury  to  cotton  bolls  by  various  plant-bugs  often   is   imperfectly 
recognized,  though  the  total  damage  may  be  severe.     In  general,  all 


222 


PESTS   OF   GARDEN  AND   FIELD    CROPS 


these  insects  have  strong,  sucking  beaks,  which  they  insert  through 
the  protecting  leaves  of  the  young  boll.  On  the  outside  a  close  ex- 
amination will  reveal  small  punctures.  Within,  the  evidence  of  attack 
is  usually  a  failure  of  some  or  all  of  the  seeds 
to  mature,  a  shriveling  of  some  parts,  or  a 
staining  of  the  Unt.  Frequently  the  injury  re- 
sults in  complete  destruction  of  the  boll. 

Most  plant  bugs  attacking  cotton  reach 
greatest  abundance  in  August  or  September. 
They  hibernate  as  adults,  largely  in  old  plants, 
rubbish,  and  similar  shelter. 

Remedial  measures  include  destruction  of 
weeds  in  the  spring,  to  deprive  the  overwin- 
tering bugs  of  food ;  early  planting,  to  mature 
the  cotton  before  the  adults  are  out  in  greatest 
abundance ;  and  the  burning  of  old  stalks  and 
rubbish  early  in  the  fall.  Hand  picking  may  be  necessary  where  a 
species  is  present  in  overwhelming  numbers. 

Cotton  Sharpshooters  {JassidxE) 

Small  active  insects  are  found  on  cotton  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
season,  making  tiny  punctures  in  the  bolls.  They  are  variously  marked 
and  colored,  and,  examined  closely,  appear  to  have  abnormally  large 
heads  shaped  hke  a  broad  V,  widest  where  it  joins  the  body.  Coming 
late  in  the  season,  their  work  does  not  do  appreciable  damage,  and  no 
remedial  measures  are  necessary.  In  the  early  part  of  summer  they  are 
to  be  found  on  the  young  foliage  of  trees. 


Fig.  277.  — TheCot- 
ton-stainer,  Dys- 
dercus  suturellus. 
Original. 


Plant  Lice  attacking  Wheat  Heads 

Two  closely  related  species  of  plant  lice,  Macrosiphum  granaria  Buck 
and  Macrosiphum  cerealis  Kalt.,  often  are  found  on  wheat  and  occa- 
sionally become  so  abundant  on  the  growing  heads  that  the  grain  is 
stunted  and  the  yield  reduced.  Both  species  are  yellowish  green  in 
color,  have  long  black  antennae  and  slender,  black  honey  tubes.     The 


PLANT  LICE   ON  FRUIT   OR  BUD  223 

length  of  the  body  is  one  tenth  of  an  inch.     In  midsummer  they  live 
on  various  grasses,  returning  to  volunteer  wheat  and  oats  in  the  fall. 

No  means  of  control  are  known  other  than  rotation  of  crops  and  the 
destruction  of  volunteer  grains.  The  natural  enemies  of  these  lice 
ordinarily  hold  them  in  check. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


Insect  Pests  of  Orchard  and  Small  Fruits 


The  Grape  Root-worm  {Fidia  viticida  Walsh) 


Evidence  of  the  presence  of  tliis  insect  is  twofold.     Above  ground 

the  parent  beetle  eats  characteristic, 
chainlike  holes  in  the  leaves.  Be- 
neath ground  the  grubs  which  hatch 
from  eggs  laid  by  the  beetles  gnaw 
channels  and  holes  in  the  larger  roots 
and  entirely  destroy  the  smaller  roots 
and  root  hairs.  The  serious  injury 
is  that  done  by  the  grubs. 

The  adult  beetle  is  one  fourth  inch 
long,  robust,  grayish,  and  covered 
with  very  short  hairs.     It  emerges  in 


Fig.  278.  —  Roots  of  grape  in- 
jured by  the  Grape  Root-worm. 
Original. 


Fig.  279.  —  Adult  of  the  Grape  Root- 
worm.  Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


224 


GRUBS    INJURING    THE    ROOTS 


225 


July,  feeds  on  the  leaves,  and  lays  eggs  in  clusters  under  loose  bark 

on  the  canes.     The  young  grub,  as  soon  as  hatched,  drops  to  the 

ground,    makes   its  way  to  the  roots,  and 

feeds   throughout  the  summer.     When  full 

grown,   it  is  two  fifths  of  an   inch    long, 

whitish,  with  a  pale  brown  head.     In  the 

fall  the  larva  goes  deeper  in  the  soil,  and 

winters   in   an   earthen   cell.     In   spring  it 

returns   to    a    point    two  or   three    inches 

below  the   surface  of  the  ground,  and  in 

June    makes    a    pupal    cell,    in    which    it 


Fig.     280.  —  The    Grape 
Root-worm.  Larvae. 

Original. 


Fig.  281.  —  Grape  leaf  showing  characteristic 
work  of  the  adults  of  the  Grape  Root-worm. 
Original. 


remains  for  nearly  three 
weeks.  The  adults  emerge 
from  this  in  July. 

The  most  effective  means 
of  control  is  a  thorough 
spraying  of  the  vines  the 
last  of  June,  or  as  soon  as 
beetles  are  seen,  using  ar- 
senate of  lead  3  pounds, 
molasses  1  gallon,  and  water 
50  gallons.  The  molasses 
is  added  because  it  attracts 
the  beetles  and  makes  the 
spraying  more  effective. 
Stirring  the  soil  beneath 
the  \'ines  about  the  middle 
of  June  will  destroy  many 
pupse  in  their  cells. 


White  Grubs  (Lachnosterna  spp.) 

Strawberr\^  plants  often  are  severely  injured  by  white,  thick-bodied 
grubs  which  feed  on  the  roots.  Entire  sections  in  large  strawberry 
patches  may  thus  be  killed  out. 

This  is  the  same  pest  that  attacks  the  roots  of  corn  and  other  field 

Q 


226 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


and  garden  crops,  and  is  discussed  under  the  heading  "  White  Grubs,  " 
in  the  section  on  Insect  Pests  of  Garden  and  Field  Crops,  page  109. 

The  Woolly  Apple  Aphis  {Schizoneura  lanigera  Hausm.) 

The  woolly  aphis  is  found  both  on  the  larger  twigs  or  limbs  and  on 
the  roots  of  apple  trees.  It  is  characterized  by  a  white,  fluffy  secre- 
tion, looking  like  little  masses  of  cotton.     On  the  twigs  it  is  found  in 


Fig.  282. 


Apple   root   showing   characteristic   work   of   the 
Woolly  Apple  Aphis.     Original. 


clusters  on  the  more  tender  bark,  especially  at  the  axils  of  twigs  or 
where  there  has  been  some  break  in  the  bark,  or  on  water  sprouts. 
Its  work  here  results  in  a  swelhng,  which  is  apt  later  to  crack  open. 
On  the  roots  the  attack  causes  knotty  enlargements.  The  root  forms 
are  the  more  serious,  because  of  interfering  with  the  normal  functions 
of  the  roots.  Attack  is  especially  severe  on  newly  set  trees,  which  are 
less  able  to  withstand  injury. 

For  the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  lice  are  wingless.  Toward  the 
end  of  summer  winged  individuals  are  developed,  and  these  fly  to 
new  hosts,  where,  after  a  succeeding  sexed  generation,  eggs  are  laid 
in  crevices  of  the  bark.  Hibernation  is  accompHshed  both  by  these 
eggs  and  by  the  subterranean  colonies. 

For  the  lice  working  above  ground  spray  with  tobacco  extract  or 
with  7  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion.  Apply  the  material  with  con- 
siderable force.  For  those  beneath  ground  draw  back  the  earth  from 
around  the  tree  to   a   distance   of   2  or  3   feet   and   a  depth  of  4 


PLANT    LICE    INJURING    THE    ROOTS 


227 


or  5  inches,  sprinkle  2  to  6  pounds  of  tobacco  dust  on  the  roots 
and  soil  thus  exposed,  and  then  replace  the  dirt  removed.     Ten  per 


Fig.  283.— The  Woolly  Apple 
Aphis.  Cluster  of  Uceontwig. 
Original. 


Fig.  284.  —  Scars  on  twigs  caused  by- 
work  of  the  Woolly  Apple  Aphis. 
Original. 


cent  kerosene  emulsion  may  be  used  instead  of  the  tobacco  dust, 
chawing  away  the  dirt  and  applying  2  or  3  gallons. 

The  Grape-phylloxera  {Phylloxera  vastatrix  Planch.) 
Numerous  small,  rather  spherical  galls   are   formed  on  the   under 
surface  of  the  leaves  of  grapes,  wliile  on  the  roots  other  colonies  of  the 


228 


FESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


same  species  of  lice  cause  swellings  which  later  decay,  resulting  in  the 
death  of  the  roots.  The  serious  injury  is  that  done  by  the  root-in- 
habiting forms. 

On  native  grapes,  in  the  eastern  states,  this 
insect  is  fairly  common,  but  the  roots  of  these 
grapes  are  resistant  and  no  notable  damage 
results.  On  imported  grapes  in  the  Pacific 
coast  states  the  roots  are  attacked  rather  than 
the  leaves,  and  here  the  insect  is  serious,  its 
work  resulting  in  the  death  of  the  vines.  The 
hce  are  small,  yellowish,  and  soft  bodied. 
Winged  generations  are  produced,  which  spread 
the  species  to  new  fields. 


Fig.  285.  — Work  of  the 
Grape-phylloxera  on 
roots.     Original. 


Fig. 


286.  —  Galls  on  grape  leaf  caused  by  the 
Grape-phylloxera.     Original. 


In  control,  in  California,  imported  varieties  are  grafted  on  native 
eastern  stocks,  thus  securing  practical  immunity.  Infested  vineyards 
are  treated  by  flooding,  applying  water  first  for  10  days,  just  after  the 
picking  season,  again  for  a  similar  period  a  few  weeks  later,  and  for  a 
thirty-day  period  in  winter.  Vines  grown  in  nearly  pure  sand  are  not 
severely  attacked. 


PLANT   LICE    FEEDING    ON    THE    ROOTS 


229 


The  Black  Peach  Aphis 
{Aphis  jjersicoB-niger  Er.  Sm.) 

The  roots  of  peach  trees  often  become  infested 
with  a  soft-bodied,  black  plant  louse.  Usually 
a  few  of  the  same  hce  will  be  found  on  the  leaves 
as  well,  but  often  the  only  visible  evidence  of 
attack  is  the  yellowing  of  the  fohage  and 
general  untlirifty  appearance  of  the  tree.  Ex- 
amination will  disclose  large  numbers  of  these 
insects  clustered  on  the  roots.  When  mature, 
they  are  shining  black,  and  the  body  is  more 
nearly  round  than  that  in  most  plant  Hce. 
The  younger  forms  are  brown  or  reddish. 

Treatment  consists  in  drawing  away  the  earth 
from  around  the  base  of  the  tree  and  applying 
3  or  4  pounds  of  tobacco  dust,  replacing  the 
earth  afterwards.  The  lice  on  fohage  may  be 
killed  by  spraying  thoroughly  with  tobacco  ex- 
tract or  7  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion. 

The  Strawberry  Root-louse  {Aphis  forbesi  Weed) 

Dark  greenish  or  bluish,  soft-bodied  plant  lice 
infest  the  roots  of  strawberries.  Where  beds 
are  badly  attacked,  patches  are  killed  out  here 
and  there.  If  a  plant  that  is  unthrifty  is  pulled 
up,  clusters  of  the  hce  will  be  found  on  the  roots,  always  in  com- 
pany with  ants. 

The  ants  are  responsible  for  the  root  infestation.  The  hce  hatch 
early  in  the  season  from  eggs  laid  in  the  fall  on  the  stems  and  leaves 
by  the  last  generation  of  the  previous  year.  Two  or  three  generations 
are  passed  alcove  ground ;  then  the  ants  appear  and  carry  the  hce  to 
the  roots,  later  transporting  them  to  other  plants  as  the  ones  infested 
sicken  and  die. 

An  effective  treatment  consists  in  covering  the  plants  with  straw  in 


Fig.  287.— The  Black 
Peach  Aphis.  Lice 
clustered  on  root. 
Original. 


230 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


early  spring,  before  growth  starts,  and  burning  them  over,  thus  de- 
stroying the  eggs  on  the  leaves  and  stems.     Beds  may  be  sprayed  with 

tobacco  extract  after  the  eggs 
hatch  and  before  the  ants  appear, 
but  the  apphcation  must  be 
thorough.  Old  beds  that  will  be 
discarded  should  always  be  plowed 
up  in  the  fall,  or,  better,  burned 
over  in  fall  or  winter. 


Fig.  288. — Early-season  genera- 
tion of  the  Strawberry  Root- 
louse  on  strawberry  leaf  and 
stem.     Original. 


Fig.  289.  — Eggs  of  the  Strawberry 
Root-louse  among  hairs  of  leaf- 
stem.    Enlarged.     Original. 


The  Strawberry  Crown-girdler   {Otiorhynchiis  ovatus  Linn.) 

Strawberry  plants  sometimes 
are  girdled  an  inch  or  two  be- 
low the  surface  ^of  the  ground 
by  the  young  or  grubs  of  this 
insect.  Infested  plants  tend  to 
wilt  down,  and  if  one  pulls  at  the 
tops,  they  will  be  found  to  come 
up    readily,    and   to    show    the 

,       .  ,-       .  ,  .  Fig.    290.  — Adult  of   the  Strawberry 

work  of  the   msect  on   the  mam  Crown-girdler.     Enlarged  and  natu- 

root  a  little    below   the    crown.  ral  size.    Original. 


GIRDLING    THE    MAIN    ROOT 


231 


The   adult  beetle  is  a  general  feeder,  and  sometimes  injures  shade 
trees. 

Wild  strawberry  and  the  roots  of  various  common  grasses  are  the 
natural  food  of  the  grubs.  It  is  inadvisable  therefore  to  set  out  plants 
in  ground  that  has  been  in  sod  where  examination  shows  the  presence  of 
tliis  grub  or  similar  root  feeders  in  numbers  in  the  soil. 


The  Cranberry  Girdler  {Crambiis  hortuellus  Hiibn.) 

Injury  by  this  species  is  easily  recog- 
nized, the  plants  being  girdled  just  below 
the  surface  of  the  sand.  The  tops  show 
the  effects  by  turning  brown  and  dying. 

Damage  is  likely  to  be  confined  to 
restricted  areas.  Flooding  for  ten  days 
after  picking  is  an  effective  means  of 
control. 


Fig.  291.— Adult  of  the 
Cranberry  Girdler.  Origi- 
nal. 


The  Grape  Root-borer  {Memythrus  polistiformis  Harr.) 

The  softer  tissues  within  the  roots  of  grapes 
are  attacked  by  a  yellowish  white  borer,  1^ 
inches  long  when  full  grown,  and   somewhat 


Fig.  292.  —  The  Grape  Root-borer.     Original. 

robust.     Infested  vines  do  not  usually  die,  but 
fail  to  make  thrifty  growth. 

Two  years  are  required  by  the  borer  to  reach 
maturity,  and  therefore  one  will  ordinarily  find 


Fig.  293.  — Pupa  of 
the  Grape  Root- 
borer.     Original. 


232 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Fig.  294. —Adult  of  the  Grape  Root- 
borer.  Enlarged  to  twice  natural  size. 
Original. 


two  sizes  of  borers  in  the 
roots.  When  mature,  the  borer 
pupates  just  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  The  adult 
is  a  clear-winged  moth  closely 
resembling  a  wasp. 

Cultivation  in  June  and  July 
will  destroy  or  bury  many  of 
the  pupae.  Vines  should  be 
stimulated  liberally  so  as  to 
withstand    attack.      Removal 


of  the  larvae  from  the  roots  by  hand  is  sometimes  practiced. 


Prionid  Borers  (Prionus  spp.) 


Fig.  295. — A  Prionid  Borer.     Slightly  enlarged.    Original. 


Large,  yellowish- white  borers, 
sometimes  2|  inches  long,  occasion- 
ally are  found  working  in  or  on  the 
roots  of  grapevines,  pear  trees,  and 
other  fruits.  They  are  the  larvse  of 
dark  brown  beetles  of  the  genus 
Prionus.  When  working  in  a  large 
root,  the  borer  often  hollows  out 
the  entire  inner  parts,  leaving  only 
the  shell.  Removal  by  hand  is  the 
only  known  remedy. 


Fig.  296.  —  Adult  of  a  Prionid 
Borer,  Prionus  imbricornis.  Origi- 
nal. 


BORING    IN    THE    CROWN 


233 


The  Strawberry  Crown-borer  ( r^Zo(ierma /ragran'ce  Riley) 

The  inside  of  the  crown  of  strawberrj^  plants  is  hollowed  out  by  a 
white,  thick-bodied  grub,  one  fourth  of  an  inch  long,  with  a  brown  head. 

The  adult  is  a  small,  dark 
beetle,  one  fifth  of  an  inch  long, 
with  three  darker  spots  toward 
the  outer  edge  of  each  wing 
cover.  It  emerges  in  the  fall, 
hibernates,  and  lays  eggs  in  the 


Fig. 


Fig.  297.  — Adult  of  the  Strawberry 
Crown-borer.  Enlarged  and  nat- 
ural size.     Original. 

spring.  Usually  only  older 
plants  are  infested,  because  egg 
laying  is  over  by  the  time  that 
runners  formed  in  midsummer 
have  made  any  growth.  There 
is  one  generation  annually. 

The  adults  are  unable  to  fl3^  Therefore,  if  old  beds  are  attacked, 
care  should  be  taken  to  make  ne\v  plantings  at  some  distance,  and  to 
use  only  new  runners,  which  will  not  usually  be  found  infested.  In 
discarded  beds  the  plants  should  be  plowed  out  at  once  after  the  pick- 
ing season,  raked  into  piles,  and  burned.  This  should  be  done  not 
later  than  August,  in  order  to  kill  the  insect  while  still  in  the  crowns. 
Where  beds  are  moved  every  two  or  three  seasons,  no  trouble  need  be 
feared  from  this  insect. 


298.— Work    of 
Crown-borer. 


the    Strawberry- 
Original. 


234 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


The  Strawberry  Crown  Moth  {^geria  rutilans  Hy.  Edw.) 

On  the  Pacific  coast  straw- 
berries, blackberries,  and  rasp- 
berries are  injured  by  a  whitish, 
cylindrical  borer,  three  fourths 
of  an  inch  long  when  mature, 
which  burrows  in  the  crown  of 
the  plant.  The  adult  is  a 
clear-winged  moth,  resembling 
a  wasp.  Remedies  include  sub- 
mersion of  infested  fields,  or 
the  removal  and  destruction  of 
infested  plants. 


Fig.  299.  —  The  Strawberry  Crown  Moth. 
Enlarged  to  twice  natural  size.  Origi- 
nal. 


The  Raspberry  Root-borer  {Bembecia  marginala  Harr.) 

A  pinkish  grub  works  at  the  base  of  blackberry  and  raspberry  canes, 
often  girdling  the  cane  just  above  the 
crown,  causing  the  death  of  the  shoot. 
The  injury  is  apt  to  be  noticed  in  the 
early  part  of  the  growing  season,  when  vig- 


FiG.  300.  — Work  of  the 
Raspberry  Root-borer. 
Original. 


Fig.  301. —  The  Raspberry  Root-borer.  Larva, 
slightly  enlarged.     Original. 

orous  canes  suddenly  wilt.  Sometimes 
the  grubs  tunnel  up  in  the  pith  for  a  few 
inches,  and  again  they,  may  work  through 
the  roots. 

Two  years  are  required  for  the  growth 


BORING    IN    THE    TRUNK 


235 


of  the  larva.  The  adults  are 
clear-winged  moths,  are  on 
the  wing  in  late  summer, 
and  lay  eggs  on  the  leaves, 
whence  the  larvae  make  their 
way  to  the  base  of  the  plant. 
Removal  and  destruction 
of  infested  canes  and  roots 
each  spring  is  the  only 
remedy. 


Fig.   302.  —  Adult  of  the  Raspberry  Root- 
borer.    Slightly  enlarged.     Original. 


The  Round-headed  Apple-tree  Borer  {Saperda  Candida  Fab.) 

Apple  trees,  especially  newly  set  stock,  are  subject  to  severe  injury 
by  a  grub  that  bores  in  both  sapwood  and  heartwood  toward  the  base 


Fig.  303.  —  Work  and  larva  of  the  Round-headed  Apple-tree  Borer.     Original. 


of  the  trunk.  Its  work  may  be  recognized  by  discolorations  of  the 
bark  and  the  presence  of  castings  pushed  out  of  its  burrows.  The 
full-grown  grub  is  an  inch  long,  yellowish  white,  with  a  small, 
dark  head,  and  a  slightly  enlarged,  brown  first  segment. 

The  parent  is  a  handsome  striped  beetle.     Eggs  are  laid  on  the  bark, 


236 


P£STS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


usually  within  a  foot  of  the  ground,  in  June  and  July.  The  larva 
requires  three  years  for  maturity,  feeding  first  in  the  sapwood,  but 
later  penetrating  to  the  heart  of  the  tree.     The  food  plants  include 

apple,  pear,  quince,  and 
related  wild  species. 

Cutting  out  with  a 
knife  or  probing  with 
a  soft  copper  wire  are 
effectual  remedies,  if 
carefully  done  each 
season.  If  a  wire  probe 
is  used,  nick  the  end 
so  that  rough  barbs 
will  be  made  and  the 
borer  thus  drawn  out. 
Mechanical  protections 
tied  around  the  trunk 
for  two  to  three  inches 
below  the  ground  to  a 
height  of  two  or  three 
feet  will  prevent  egg 
laying.  For  this  pur- 
pose one  may  use  wood 
veneer,  heavy  paper, 
or  even  old  news- 
papers, which  usually 
will  last  through  one 
season.  Pure  white 
lead  and  linseed  oil 
may  be  painted  on  the 
trunks  of  apple  trees, 
but  ready  mixed  paint  must  not  be  used,  since  it  may  contain  other 
oils  that  are  injurious.  Protective  washes  are  of  some  benefit,  but 
need  to  be  renewed  occasionally,  and  will  not  wholly  prevent  attack, 
though  they  will  lessen  the  number  of  borers. 


Fig.  304.  —  The  Round-headed  Apple-tree  borer. 
Burrows  emerging  at  base  of  tree.  Adult. 
Original. 


BORING    IN    THE    TRUNK  237 

The  Flat-headed  Apple-tree  Borer  (Chrysohothris  femorata  Fab.) 


Fig.   305. 


The   Flat-headed    Apple-tree    Borer.     Work 
and  larva.     Original. 


The  flat-headed  apple-tree  borer  works  only  in  the  sapwood,  often 
well  up  on  the  trunk,  and  completes  its  life  round  in  one  year.  The 
grub  has  a  flattened  and  enlarged 
segment  just  back  of  the  head.  Its 
parent  is  a  small,  metaUic  colored 
beetle.  The  food  plants  include 
apple,  pear,  peach,  and  various 
forest  trees  such  as  oak  and  maple. 

Eggs  are  laid  in  June  and  July. 
The  grub  makes  shallow  burrows, 
for  the  most  part  just  under  the 
outer  bark.  The  insect  hibernates 
as  a  grub  in  the  burrows. 

Remedies  are  the  same  as  for  the  round-headed  apple-tree  borer, 
but  mechanical  protectors  must  inclose  the  entire  trunk. 

The  Peach-borer   (Sanninoidea  exitiosa  Say) 

An  exudation  of  gum,  often  mixed  with  sawdust  or  frass,  usually 
close  to  or  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  is  the  outward  e\i- 


FiG.  306.— Adult  of  the  Flat-headed 
Apple-tree  Borer.     Original. . 


238 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


dence  of  the  work  of  the  peach-tree  borer.     This  may  be  observed  at 
any  time  of  year,  but  the  gum  is  fresh  in  late  summer  or  very  early 


Fig.  307.  —  The  Peach-borer.     Larva  in  burrow.    Slightly  enlarged.     Original. 

in  the  spring.  If  one  will  take  a  sharp  knife  and  cut  through  the  bark, 
one  will  find  a  burrow  running  in  the  sapwood,  and  at  its  end  a  yellowish 
or  pinkish  grub,  with  brown  head.  The  length  of  a  full-grown  grub 
is  about  one  inch.  Peach  trees  are  much  weakened 
by  the  attack,  and  if  several  borers  are  present, 
the  tree  may  be  killed.  Cherry  and  plum  trees 
are  infested  to  some  extent  by  the  same  borer. 

The  adult  is  a  moth,  but  its  clear  wings  give  it 
much  the  appearance  of  a  wasp.  In  the  female 
only  the  liind  wings  are  clear.  Its  general  color 
is  deep  blue.  The  abdomen  of  the  female  is 
marked  by  an  orange  band. 

Eggs  are  laid  in  May,  June,  or  July,  directly  on 
the  bark,  usually  near  the  ground.  The  young 
grub  works  entirely  in  the  sapwood,  from  the  time 
when  first  hatched  until  the  early  part  of  the 
following  summer,  resting  and  remaining  dormant 
during  the  winter  months  and  resuming  activity 
in  the  spring.  The  moths  emerge  from  May  until  July.  There  is 
one  generation  each  year. 


Fig.  308.— Cocoon 
of  the'Peach-borer. 
Original. 


BORING    IN    THE    TRUNK 


239 


A  common  remedial  measure  consists  in  cutting  out  the  grub  with 
a  sharp  knife.  This  is  best  done  in  the  fall  or  very  early  in  the  spring. 
The  burrows  may  be  probed  with  a  soft  wire  nicked  so  as  to  form 


Fig.  3U9.  —  Adults,  female  and  male,  of  the  Peach-borer.     Original. 


rough  barbs ;  the  grub  or  a  piece  of  it  will  then  be  drawn  out  with 
the  wire. 

The  best  preventive  measure  consists  in  drawing  up  earth  around 
the-  base  of  the  tree  in  early  spring,  remo\dng  it  toward  the  latter  part 
of  summer.  The  moths  will  not  lay  eggs  on  the  trunk  when  this  is 
done.  The  trunk  may  be  protected  with  a  cyUnder  of  paper  tied 
around  it,  extending  up  12  or  15  inches  and  dowTiinto  the  ground  an  inch 
or  two.  Washes  applied  to  the  tree  to  prevent  egg  laying  are  only 
partly  successful. 


240 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


The  Lesser  Peach-borer  {Synanthedon  pidipes  G.  and  R.) 

Old  or  weakened  trees  are  apt  to  be  attacked  by  this  borer,  which 
works  in  the  soft,  growing  tissue  anywhere  in  the  trunk,  from  the 

ground  to  the  main  branches. 
The  same  insect  also  at- 
tacks plum,  cherry,  and  wild 
cherry. 

The  worm  itself  has  much 
the  appearance  of  the  com- 
mon peach  borer,  but  is 
smaller,  rarely  being  over 
four  fifths  of  an  inch  long, 
when  full  grown.  In  the 
South  there  are  two  genera- 
tions ;  in  the  North,  only  one.  The  winter  is  passed  by  the  larva  in 
the  trunk,  and  pupation  takes  place  early  in  the  spring.     The  adult  is 


Fig. 


310.  —  The      Lesser     Peach-borer. 
Slightly  enlarged.     Original. 


Fig.  311.  —  The  Lesser  Peach-borer. 
Pupa  protruding  from  crack  in 
bark.     Original. 


Fig.  312.  —  Adult  of  the  Lesser  Peach- 
borer.  Slightly  enlarged.  Orig- 
inal. 


a  clear-winged  moth.     Eggs  are  laid  on  the  trunk,  especially  in  cracks 
or  crevices. 

The  best  preventive  measure  is  to  keep  trees  growing  vigorously 
and  promptly  to  treat  with  white  lead  any  chance  wounds  in  the  bark. 


BORING    BENEATH    BARK    OF    TRUNK    OR    LIMB      241 

Where  borers  are  present,  cut  them  out  with  a  knife,  or  probe  the 
burrows  with  a  soft  copper  wire.  Knife  wounds  should  be  painted 
with  white  lead. 


The  Shot  Hole  Borer  (Eccoptogaster  (Scolytus)  rugulosusRa.tz.) 
Pluni,  pear,  apple,  peach,  and  cherry  are  attacked  by  this  tiny  insect. 

The  outward  evidence  of  injury  is  seen  in  numerous  round  holes  in 

the  bark,  each  hole  clean-cut, 

about  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch 

in  diameter,  as  if  the  trunk  or 

limb  had  received  a  charge  of 

bird  shot.     As  a  rule  only  trees 

are  attacked  that  have  been 

weakened  from  some  cause  or 

other. 

If  a  piece  of  bark  is  removed 

where  the  holes  are  numerous, 

shallow  galleries  will  be  found 

beneath.  These  are  of  char- 
acteristic   form.       A    central 

gallery,  one  or  two  inches  long, 

runs  parallel  with  the  axis  of 

the  trunk  or  hmb,  while  from 

this  many  other  galleries  di- 
verge, quite  small  at  the  start 
but  growing  rapidly  larger. 

A  small,  dark  beetle  makes 
the  main  gallery  as  its  brood  chamber,  laying  its  eggs  in  pockets 
along  each  side.  Grubs  hatch  from  these,  bore  the  diverging  chan- 
nels as  they  grow,  and  finally  come  out  as  adult  beetles,  cutting 
round  emergence  holes  through  the  bark. 

In  northern  sections  there  are  two  generations  each  year ;    in  the 
South  there  are  three. 

To  control,  remove  and  burn  dead  or  dying  trees  in  which  the  insect 
is  breeding  in  large  numbers.     They  will  in\'ariably  spread  from  these 


Fig.  313.— Burrows  of  the  Shot  Hole 
Borer,  disclosed  by  removal  of  bark. 
Original. 


242 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


to  others  in  the  orchard  that 
chance  not  to  be  making  vig- 
orous growth.  Trim  back  and 
fertihze  trees  only  moderately 
attacked.  Apply  a  coat  of 
thick  carbolated  wliitewash  in 
early  spring,  again  in  June,  and 
again  in  August.  Use  1  pint  of 
crude  carbolic  acid  to  10  gallons 
of  the  wliitewash. 


Fig.  314.  — The  Shot  Hole  Borer.  Sec-  Fig.  315.  — The  Shot  Hole  Borer, 
tion  of  bark  over  burrows,  showing  exit  Adult.  Enlarged  and  natural  size, 
holes.     Original.  Original. 


The  Peach  Bark-beetle 

{Phloeophthorus  liminaris  Harr.) 
Injury  is  similar  to  that  of  the  shot 
hole  borer.  The  bark  of  peach,  plum, 
or  cherry  trees  is  peppered  with  many 
small,  round  holes.  If  the  tree  is  not 
already  too  much  weakened,  consider- 
able gum  will  flow  from  these  holes. 
Removal  of  a  section  of  bark  will  show 
the  difference  between  the  work  of 
this  insect  and  that  of  the  shot  hole 
borer :  the  main  channels  made  by  this 
pest  run  around  the  axis  of  the  trunk 
or  limb,  while  those  of  the  shot  hole 
borer  run  parallel  to  it. 


Fig.  316. —  Burrows  of  the  Peach 
Bark-beetle.    Original. 


GRUBS    BORING    IN    THE    CANE 


243 


There  are  two  generations  each  year.  The 
adult  beetles  hibernate  in  cells  dug  out  in  the 
inner  bark,  often  in  healthy  trees.  In  the 
spring  they  come  out,  select  weakened  trees, 
and  bore  the  main  channel  just  under  the  bark, 
laying  eggs  in  the  sides  of  this  channel.  The 
grubs  work  out  at  right  angles,  making  di- 
verging burrows.  A  second  lot  of  beetles  ap- 
pear in  August,  construct  channels  as  before, 
and  from  their  grubs  come  the  hibernating 
adults. 

Control  measures  are  the  same  as  those  recommended  for  the  shot 
hole  borer. 


Fig.  317.  — The  Peach 
Bark-beetle.  Adult. 
Enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original. 


The  Currant  Borer  {^geria  tipuliformis  Clerck) 

Currants  or  gooseberries  are  injured  or  killed  by  the  work  of  this 
borer.  The  infested  plants  usually  show  the  attack  first  by  their 
unthrifty  appearance;  the  next  season  they 
fail  to  leaf  out. 

The  borer  is  a  yellowish  grub,  half  an  inch 
long  when  full  grown.  It  works  in  the  center 
of   the   cane,   spends   the    winter   within   the 


Fig.   318.  —  Adult  of    the  Currant  Borer. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 


Fig.  319.  — Work  of 
the  Currant  Borer, 
Original. 


244 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


^^iw^mt 


Fig.  321.— The  Red- 
necked C  ane-borer. 
Larva,  enlarged  to  twice 
natural  size.      Original. 


cane  near  its  base,  resumes  work  in  the  spring  and  soon  transforms. 
The  adult  is  a  clear-winged  moth,  and  emerges  in  June  through  a  hole 
in  the  cane  cut  by  the  grub  before  transforming. 

Removal  and  destruction  of  infested  canes  in  the  fall  or  spring  is 
the  only  remedy. 

The  Red-necked  Cane-borer  {Agrilus  ruficollis  Fab.) 

A  whitish  grub,  one  half  to  three   fourths 
of  an  inch  long,  with  an  enlarged  head,  bores 

in  the  canes  of  black-  

berry  and  raspberry. 
In  the  former  the  bur- 
rows make  a  spiral 
girdle  just  beneath 
the  bark,  and  cause 
a  slight  swelling,  re- 
sulting in  the  death 
of  the  cane  the  fol- 
lowing season.  The  galls  occur  usually  within 
two  or  three  feet  of  the  base  of  the  cane.  In 
raspberries  no  serious  damage  is  done. 

The  adult  is  a  rather  slender  beetle,  one 
third  of  an  inch  long,  with  dark  wing  covers 
and  a  copper-colored  thorax  or  "  neck."  Eggs 
are  laid  in 
June  and 
July  at  the 
base  of 
leafstalks.  The  grubs  pupate 
within  the  canes,  above  the  galls, 
and  remain  there  until  the  fol- 
lowing May. 

Before  May  1  remove  and  de- 
stroy infested  canes,  including 
those  of  wild  blackberry  near  at 
hand. 


Fig.  320.— Work  of 
the  Red-necked 
Cane-borer.  Orig- 
inal. 


Fig.  322.— Adult  of  the  Red-necked 
Cane-borer.  Enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original. 


GRUBS    OR    MAGGOTS    IN    CANE    OR    STEM 


245 


The  Raspberry  Cane-borer  (Oberea  himaculata  Oliv.) 
Raspberry  or  blackberry  shoots  attacked  by  this  insect  wilt  toward 
the  end,  and  often  bend  sharply  over.     Within  will  be  found  a  slender 
grub,  which  later  bores  down 
through  the  cane,  pupates   in 
the  base  of  it,  and  emerges  the 
following    June    as    a   slender, 
dark  beetle,  with  long  antennae 
and  yellow  thorax.     The  grub, 
when  full  grown,  is  one  inch  long 


Fig.  323  —Adult  of  the  Rasp- 
berry Cane-borer.  Slightly  en- 
larged.    Original. 


Fig. 


324.  —  Work    of    the    Raspberry 
Cane-borer.     Original. 


and  has  a  small  brown  head.  Two  years  are  required  for  the  entire 
life  round.  If  a  cane  that  has  wilted  is  examined  closely,  it  will 
be  found  that  the  beetle  has  girdled  it  at  two  points  with  a  row  of 
punctures.     The  egg  is  laid  between  these  two  rows. 

Remove  and  destroy  the  upper  parts  of  infested  canes  as  soon  as  the 
presence  of  the  insect  is  discovered.  If  this  work  is  delayed  until  late 
summer,  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  entire  cane  in  order  to  get  the 
grub. 

The  Raspberry  Cane-maggot  {Phorhia  ruhivora  Coq.) 

The  tips  of  the  young  shoots  wilt  and  droop  as  when  attacked  by  the 
cane-borer  described  above,  but  the  canes  do  not  show  the  character- 


246 


PESTS    OF    OUCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


istic  punctures  and  do  not  bend  sharply  at  one  place.  The  drooping 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  a  maggot  wliich  burrows  in  the  pith  of  the 
cane  and  more  or  less  girdles  it  from  the  inside. 

The  adult  is  a  two-winged  fly,  and  emerges  in  the  spring.  The  insect 
remains  as  a  pupa  within  the  cane  over  winter.  Cut  and  destroy 
infested  canes  as  soon  as  the  wilting  of  the  tips  is  observed. 


The  Currant  Stem-girdler  (Janus  integer  Nort.) 

Currant  shoots  wilt  and  bend  over  sharply,  and  usually  the  tip 
soon  breaks  off  and  falls  to  the  ground,  leaving  a  square-cut  stub. 
Within  the  remaining  stalk,  a  few  inches  below  the  cut,  will  be  found 
a  light  yellow  larva  half  an  inch  long,  wider  toward  the  head,  and  pro- 
vided with  a  forked  spine  at  the  hind  end. 

The  parent  insect  is  a  sawfly.  The  girdling  of  the  stem  is  done  by 
the  adult  just  after  depositing  its  egg  in  the 
shoot  and  at  a  point  just  above  the  egg.  The 
larva  hibernates  in  the  main  shoot.  It  seldom 
burrows  more  than  six  inches  below  the  stub. 

Infested  shoots  should  be  cut  off  eight  or  ten 
inches  below  the  stub. 

The  Grape-cane  Gall-maker 

(Ampeloglypter  sesostris  Lee.) 

A  tiny  snout  beetle,  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
long,   sometimes   injures   grape   canes   in    the 


Fig.  325.  — Work  of 
the  Grape-cane  Gall- 
maker.     Original. 


Fig.   326.  —  Adult   of    the    Grape-cane    Gall-maker. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 


GRUBS    IN    STEM    OR    SHOOT 


247 


spring  by  puncturing  the  new  wood.  The  part  injured  later  develops 
into  a  gall  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  wliich  shows  a  deep 
scar  on  one  side.  Eggs  are  laid  in  the  punctures,  and  grubs  develop 
in  the  pith  of  the  cane.  The  adults  come  out  in  late  sununer,  and  hide 
in  rubbish  over  winter. 

Since  the  beetles  feed  to  some  extent  on  the  leaf  and  stem  tissues, 
they  may  be  poisoned  by  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green. 
Galls  should  be  cut  off  and  destroyed  before  the  time  of  emergence  of 
adults  in  late  summer. 


The  Grapevine  Girdler  (Ampeloglypter  ater  Lee.) 

This  insect  in  its  adult  stage  is  similarto  the  grape-cane  gall-maker, 
but  its  color  is  black.  It  injures  terminal  shoots  by  girdling  them, 
so  that  the  end  of  the  shoot  later  falls  to  the  ground.  The  young  or 
grub  develops  within  the  shoot.  The 
adult  emerges  in  the  fall  and  hibernates 
in  the  leaves  or  trash. 

Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  or 
Paris  green  in  May  or  June  will  kill 
the  beetles.  In  early  summer  cut  off 
the  ends  of  canes  showing  the  charac- 
teristic girdling,  making  the  cut  a  few 
inches  below  the  girdle. 

The  Blackberry  Pithy-gall 
(Diastrophus  turgidus  Bass.) 

Curious,  hard  enlargements  of  the 
canes  of  blackberries  are  caused  by 
small,  fleshy  larvae  which  hatch  from 
eggs  laid  by  a  black  gall-fly.  Several 
larvae  inhabit  each  gall,  remaining 
within  it  as  pupae  over  winter.  The 
species  is  not  abundant  enough  to  be  a  pest,  but  galls  should  be  re- 
moved whenever  found. 


/' 

k 

1 

f 

I 

Y 

Fig.    327.  —  The      Blackberry 
Pithy-gall.     Original. 


248 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND     SMALL    FRUITS 


The  Peach  Twig-moth  {Aiiarsia  lineatella  Zell.) 

In  the  spring,  about  the  time  of  blooming  of  peach  trees,  terminal 
clusters  of  leaves  here  and  there  wilt,  and  the  twigs  soon  die.     Close 

examination  will  show 
that  a  tiny  borer  has 
been  at  work  in  the 
twigs,  eating  out  the 
inner  substance  for 
an  inch  or  so,  or  dig- 
ging out  a  hole  in 
one  side.  The  larva 
itself,  if  discovered, 
will  be  found  to  be 
quite  small,  with  a 
dark  head  and  dark 
terminal  segment. 

Shortly  the  little 
gray  moths,  expand- 
ing about  half  an 
inch,  are  about,  and 
a  second  brood  is  on 
the  w^ay.  Later  there 
is  still  another  brood. 
The  larvse  of  these 
later  generations 
often  work  in  the 
young  fruit,  causing 
drops  of  gum  to 
exude. 

The  winter  is  passed 
as  a  larva,  hidden  away  in  a  little  chamber  just  under  the  outer 
bark,  in  the  axil  of  a  new  shoot  or  bud.  To  control,  spray  with  lime 
sulphur,  at  the  time  that  the  buds  are  first  swelling,  so  as  to  kill  the 
larva  within  its  winter  home.  If  this  treatment  is  omitted,  spray 
with  arsenate  of  lead,  4  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water,  just  as  the 


Fig.  328. 


Work  of  the  Peach  T wig-moth. 
Original. 


BORERS    IN    BRANCH    OR    TWIG  24:9 

buds  first  begin  to  open.     The  later  treatment  is  designed  to  poison 
the  borer  when  it  begins  work  on  the  twigs. 


Fig.  329.  -Adult  Peach  Twig-moth.     Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 


The  Shot-borer  {Xyleborus  dispar  Fab.  (pyri  Peck)) 
A  tiny  black  beetle,  one  tenth  of  an  inch  long,  bores  into  twigs 
branches  in  late  summer  and  deposits  eggs.     The  resulting  grub 
in  the  twig,  becoming  full  grown  the  following  June.' 
In  the  spring  close  observation  will  reveal  one  or  more 
round  punctures,  a  twentieth  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.     Infested 
twigs  are  apt  to  wilt  and  should 
be  cut  off  and  burned  as  sooi 
as  the  wilting  is  noted. 


or  small 
burrows 


Fig.  330.  — Work  of  Fig.  331.  — Adults  of  the  Shot- 
the  Shot-borer.  borer.  Enlarged  and  natural 
Original.  size.     Original. 


Fig.  332.  —  Section 
through  branch, 
showing  work  of 
the  Shot-borer. 
Original. 


250 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


The  Apple  Twig-borer 

{Schistoceros  hamatus  Fab.) 

In  early  summer  the  twigs  of  apple, 
cherry,  or  pear,  or  the  canes  of  grape 
may  show  characteristic  little  tunnels, 
beginning  just  above  a  shoot  or  bud, 
and  extending  down  a  short  distance 
in  the  main  stem  or  branch.  They 
are  the  work  of  a  small,  dark  brown 
beetle,  about  one  third  of  an  inch  in 
length,  which  soon  deserts  its  temporary 
burrow  and  is  not  likely  to  be  seen. 

The  insect  breeds  in  diseased  wood, 
hibernating    within  the    same.      It   is 
troublesome    in    the    neighborhood    of 
Fig.  333.  —Work  of  the  Apple      piles  of  recent  trimmings  and  the  like, 
Twig-borer.    Original.  and  these  should  be  removed  and  de- 

stroyed.    The  tunnels  in  the  twigs  of  fruit  trees  are  made  apparently 
in  feeding,  or  for  temporary  shelter. 


Fig.  334.  —  The  Apple  Twig-borer,  enlarged  and  natural  size.     Originai. 


The  Twig-girdler  {Oncideres  cingulata  Say) 

Pecan  trees  and  others  are  injured  by  a  dark  gray  beetle  half  an  inch 
long,  which  girdles  twigs  or  smaller  branches.     A  clean  cut  is  made 


GIRDLING    THE    TWIGS 


251 


by  the  beetle, 


Fig. 


usually  deep  enough  for  the  twig  to  break  entirely  off. 
The  beetles  are  at  work  in  late  summer. 

After  girdling  a 
twig  the  beetle  lays 
eggs  in  it,  and  the 
larvae  bore  in  the 
twig,  becoming  full 
grown  the  following 
summer.  There  is 
only  one  generation 
each  year. 


335.  —  The  Twig-girdler. 
Original. 


Where  young  trees  are  seriously  attacked,  the 
beetles  should  be  hunted  out  and  destroyed.     All 
twigs     cut     off    should    be 
gathered  up  and  burned. 

The  Twig-pruner 

{Elaphidion  villosum  Fab.) 


Fig.  336.  — Work  of 
the  Twig-girdler. 
Original. 


Fig.  337.  — Work  of 
the  Twig-pruner. 
Original. 


Various  kinds  of  fruit  and 
shade  trees  sometimes  suffer 
the  loss  of  terminal  twigs,  girdled  by  this  insect. 
The  work  is  done  by  the  larva  or  grub  of  an 
elongate,  dark  brown  beetle,  a  half  to  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  long.  Eggs  are  laid  in  the 
twigs  in  July,  and  the  grub  feeds  within,  finally 
gnawing  a  circu- 
lar groove  as  far 
as  the  outer 
bark,  so  that  the 
twig  breaks  off, 
taking  the  grub 
with  it.  The 
fallen  twig  then  ^^^  338. -Adult  of  the  Twig- 
serves     as     its  pruner.     Original. 


252 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


home  until  the  following  spring,  when  it  trans- 
forms and  comes  out  as  an  adult.  The  remedy 
is  to  gather  and  destroy  the  fallen  twigs. 

Tree  Crickets  {(Ecanthus  spp.) 

Small,  light  green,  and  rather  slender  crickets 

make  long  rows  of  punctures  in  the   canes   of 

raspberries    and    blackberries,    and    in    tender 

twigs  of  fruit  trees, 

the     injury    often 

resulting     in     the 

death  of  the   cane 

or  twig.     If  a  twig 

showing  these  char- 
acteristic punctures 

is  split,  it  will  be 

found      that      the 

holes  were  made  as 

a  place   to  deposit   eggs.      The  species  usually 

responsible  is  (Ecanthus  nigricornis  Walk. 

The  punctures  are  made  in  the  latter  part  of 

summer,    and  the   eggs    hatch    in   the    spring. 

There  is  one  brood  in  the  North,  but  two  in  the 
South.  Both  young  and  adults  feed  on  other  insects,  and  should  be 
regarded  as  beneficial. 


m 

mt\ 

. 

w^ 

1 

m 

mm 

1 

Fig. 


340.  — A  Tree  Cricket. 
Original. 


Fig.  339.  —  Punc- 
tures made  by  Tree 
Crickets.  Original. 


Fig.  341.  —  Section  through  twig,  showing  punctures  of  Tree 
Crickets  in  detail.     Enlarged.     Original. 


PUNCTURING    THE    TWIGS 


253 


Injured  twigs  may  be  removed  in  early  spring 
or  in  the  course  of  winter  pruning. 

The  Buffalo  Tree-hopper  {Ceresa  huhalus  Fab.) 

The  twigs  and  smaller  limbs  of  orchard  trees 
sometimes  show  regular  rows  of  oval  scars,  due 
to  the  egg-laying 
punctures  of  a 
curious  little  in- 
sect, the  buffalo 
tree-hopper.  The 
scars  do  not  heal, 
and,  if  numerous, 
weaken  the  twigs. 

The  insect  that 
makes    the    punc- 


FiG.  343.  — Work  of 
Buffalo  Tree-hop- 
per.    Original. 


Fig.  344.  —  Work 
of  the  Periodical 
Cicada.  Original. 


Fig.  342.—  The  Buffalo  Tree- 
hopper.  Enlarged  and  natu- 
ral size.     Original. 

tures  is  triangular  in  shape, 
Ught  green  in  color,  three 
eighths  of  an  inch  long,  and 
has  a  two-horned  enlarge- 
ment at  the  front  of  its  body. 
The  young  that  hatch  from 
the  eggs  do  not  feed  in  or  on 
the  twig,  but  on  various  weeds. 

In  control,  weeds  should  be  kept  down  in  the 
orchard,  and  twigs  that  show  many  of  the  egg-lay- 
ing slits  may  be  pruned  in  winter. 

The  Periodical  Cicada  {T ibicen  septendeciin  Lmn.) 

Occasional  injury  to  twigs  of  fruit  trees  is  re- 
corded due  to  egg-laying  punctures  of  the  periodi- 
cal cicada.  This  insect  is  closely  related  to  the 
''  dog-day  cicada,"   or   "  locust,"  which  is  heard 


254 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


sounding  its  long,  high-pitched  note  in  summer.     Usually  the  only- 
notable  cases  of  injury  are  to  newly  set  fruit  trees,  which  are  so  small 


Fig.  345.  —  Emergence  of  Adult  Cicada  from  pupal  skin.     Original. 

as  to  make  the  work  in  the  twigs  really  serious.     The  injury  takes 
the  form  of  a  row  of  regular  punctures  in  the  twig,  each  puncture 

with  a  frayed  or  torn  margin. 

Definite  "  broods  "  of  this  insect 
exist  in  various  parts  of  the 
country,  and  these  have  been 
studied  and  mapped  so  that  the 
coming  of  the  adults  can  be  pre- 
dicted. The  immature  stages  of 
the  cicada  are  passed  in  the  soil, 
and  either  13  or  17  years  are  re- 
quired for  this  part  of  the  insect's 
growth,  depending  on  the  section  and  the  brood.  At  the  end  of  this 
time  the  adults  suddenly  appear  in  large  numbers,  lay  eggs,  and 
another  life  cycle  begins,  as  before. 

Bordeaux  mixture  appears  to  act  as  a  repellent  when  sprayed  on 
young  trees  that  are  threatened  with  injury. 

The  San  Jose  Scale  {Aspidiotus  perniciosus  Comst.) 
This  serious  pest  of  fruit  trees,  shade  trees,  and  ornamentals  is  an 
insidious  insect,  and  seldom  is  recognized  until  it  has  gained  a  foothold 
and  has  already  caused  marked  injury.     The  first  evidence  of  its  pres- 
ence usually  noted  is  the  weakening  or  dying  of  twigs.     On  further 


Fig.  346.  — The   Periodical  Cicada. 
Original. 


SMALL   SCALES    ON  BARK   OF    TRUNK   OR  BRANCH     255 

examination  such  twigs  are  found  to  have  a  scurfy  or  ashy  look,  the 
bark  being  crusted  with  hundreds  of  minute  scales,  no  larger  than  a 
very  small  pin  head.  If  a  sliver  of  the  outer  bark  is  cut  away,  the 
inner,  soft  bark  will  be  found  to  show  more  or  less  reddish  discolora- 


FiG.  347.  —  The  San  Josi-  Scak'.     Above,  natural  tsize.     Center,  enlarged.     Be- 
low, a  single  scale,  enlarged.     Original. 

tion.  On  peach  trees  the  scale  is  apt  to  gain  a  foothold  first  on  the 
larger  limbs,  rather  than  the  small  twigs.  When  the  scales  are  quite 
numerous,  they  will  be  found  also  on  the  leaves  and  fruit,  as  well  as  the 
bark.  On  the  fruit  of  apple,  peach,  or  pear  a  reddish  discoloration 
surrounds  isolated  scales.     Peach  trees  frequently  are  killed  by  the 


256 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


insect  in  three  years.     Apple  and  pear  trees,  and  various  ornamental 
shrubs,  usually  manage  to  exist  for  some  time  longer. 

If  a  hand  lens  is  used  for  closer  examination,  it  will  be  found  that 
each  scale  is  circular  in  shape,  rather  flat,  dark  in  color,  and  has  in  its 

center  a  small  raised  spot,  like  a 
nipple,  surrounded  by  a  slight  de- 
pression. Smaller,  oval  scales 
represent  the  males. 

There  are  several  generations 
each  season.  The  species  lives 
through  the  winter  as  half-grown 
females.  With  the  coming  of 
warm  weather  these  complete 
their  growth,  the  tiny  winged 
males  appear,  and  in  a  few  days 
each  female  begins  giving  birth 
to  exceedingly  small,  living  young. 
The  latter  crawl  about  over  the 
bark  for  a  few  hours,  then  settle 
down,  insert  their  sucking  beaks, 
and  soon  are  covered  with  a  pro- 
tecting wax  scale.  They  do  not  move  thereafter.  The  total  prog- 
eny of  a  single  female  in  one  season  is  enormous. 

The  insect  is  especially  likely  to  be  introduced  on  nursery  stock, 
and  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  the  purchase  of  trees  for  an 
orchard.  If  stock  has  been  properly  fumigated  with  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas,  the  scales  will  be  killed. 

Treatment  of  trees  or  shrubs  consists  of  spraying  in  the  dormant 
season  with  lime-sulphur  solution.  The  best  time  of  application  is  in 
the  spring,  just  before  the  buds  swell.  Where  the  infestation  is  severe, 
it  is  well  to  spray  in  the  fall,  after  the  leaves  have  dropped,  and  again 
in  the  spring. 

For  small  shrubs,  and  the  like,  if  it  is  not  desired  to  use  the  lime- 
sulphur  spray,  a  solution  of  whale-oil  soap,  2  pounds  to  1  gallon  of 
water,  may  be  applied  in  winter.    The  potash  soap  should  be  used. 


Fig.  348. 


-Work  of  San  Jose  Scale  on 
pear.     Original. 


SMALL   SCALES    ON  BARK   OF   TRUNK   OR   BRANCH       257 

Several  other  species  closely  resemble  the  San  Jose  scale,  and  on 

superficial  examniation  can  hardly  be   distinguished   from  it      Thev 

have  not,  however,  so  distinct  a 

ring  and  nipple. 
The  Putnam's  Scale   {Aspi- 

diotus  ancylus  Putnam)  infests 

many  kinds  of  fruit  and  shade 

trees.      It  has  one   generation 

annually. 
The  Cherry  Scale  (Aspidiotus 

forbesi  Johns.)  is  found  on  the 

bark  of  cherry  and  other  fruit 

trees.     It   is   lighter    in    color 
than  the  San  Jose  scale. 

The  European  Fruit-scale 
(Aspidiotus  ostreceformis  Curt.) 
attacks  principally  plums,  but 
occasionally  other  fruits,  except 
the  peach.  It  produces  several 
generations  annually  and  is 
often  a  serious  pest. 


Fig.  349.— Branch  incrusted  Avith  Put- 
nam's Scale.     Original. 


FIO.  350  -Cherry  Scale.     Enlarged  ,„  seven  ,i„,es  natural  size.     Original. 


258 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


The  Oyster-shell  Scale  {Lepidosaphes  ulmi  Linn.) 

The  shape  of  this  scale  is  quite  like  that  of  a  narrow,  miniature 
oyster  shell.  It  is  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  long  and  is  easily  ob- 
served without  a  lens.  It 
commonly  infests  a  great 
variet}^  of  deciduous  trees 
and  shrubs,  and  when 
very  abundant,  is  capable 
of  causing  the  death  of  its 
host. 

The  young  scales  ap- 
pear in  May  or  June, 
crawl  about  over  the  bark 
for  six  or  eight  hours,  and 
then  insert  their  beaks, 
settle  down,  and  secrete 
the  wax  covering  under 
which  they  remain  for  the 
rest  of  their  life.  The 
males  are  winged.  Eggs 
are  laid  in  fall,  beneath 
the  scale  covering  the 
female,  and  remain  there 
until  the  next  spring.  In 
the  South  there  are  two 
broods;  in  the  North 
one. 

Regular,  annual  spray- 
ing in  winter  with  lime 
sulphur  for  San  Jose  scale  will  hold  this  insect  sufficiently  in  check. 
For  direct,  remedial  treatment  of  badly  infested  trees  this  wash  is 
not  sufficiently  active  or  dependable.  The  only  remedies  that  may 
be  depended  on  are  a  spraying  in  early  spring  with  linseed  oil 
emulsion ;    or  an  application  of  12  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion  at  the 


Fig.  351.  —  Oyster-shclI   Scale.      Enlarged   to 
twice  natural  size.     Original. 


CONSPICUOUS    SCALES    ON    THE    BARK 


259 


time  that  the  young  are  hatching.  The 
date  for  the  latter  must  be  determined 
by  close  watching. 


Fig.  353.  —  Scurfy  Scale. 
The  larger  are  females ; 
the  smaller  are  males. 
Slightly  enlarged.  Orig- 
inal. 


Fig.  352.— Oys.(i-.^luii   >cale.      Greatly  en- 
larged.    Original. 

The  Scurfy  Scale 
(Chionaspis  fuvfura  Fitch) 
The  scurfy  scale  is  found  principally 
on  apple,  but  occasionally  on  pear, 
peach,  cherry,  currant,  and  gooseberry. 
The  scale  of  the  female  is  small,  flat, 
whitish,  and  broadly  oval.     With  these 

will  be  found  the  scales  of  the 
male,  which  are  smaller,  narrow, 
and   longitudinally  ridged. 

There  is  one  generation  annually. 
Eggs  are  laid  in  the  fall,  beneath 
the  scale  of  the  female,  and  from 
these  hatch  the  minute  young,  in 
Fig.  354.- Scurfy  "S^Ile.     Greatly     *he    Spring.       Only    the    male     is 
enlarged.    Original.  winged. 


260 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Sprajnng  with  lime  sulphur  in  winter,  as  for  San  Jose  scale,  will 
control  this  pest. 


The  Rose  Scale  (Aulacaspis  rosce  Bouche) 

Roses,  blackberries,  and  raspberries  frequently  become  infested  with 
white  scales  which  cover  the  canes.  The  individual  scales,  when  full 
grown,  are  about  one  tenth  of  an  inch  long,  thin,  flat,  and  snowy  white. 
^^  There  may  be  three  or  more  generations  in  a  year. 

MM  Judicious   pruning  will   help  to  hold   them    in 

/^\  check.     Lime  sulphur   may  be  used  as  a  winter 

-^B  spray.     Or,  spray  in  winter  with  whale-oil  soap, 

^H  1  pound  to  1  gallon  of  water. 

I 


The  Cottony  Maple-scale  {Pulvinaria  vitis  Linn.) 


This  large  and  easily  recognized  scale  attacks 
grape  vines  and  various  fruit  and  shade  trees. 
It  is  conspicuous  in  early  spring,  when  the  fluffy, 
cottony  secretion  containing  the  eggs  is  pushed 
out  from  under  the  body  of  the  female.  There 
is  one  generation  annually,  the  female  over- 
wintering on  the  bark. 

The  means  of  control  is  to  spray  with  10  per 
cent  kerosene  emulsion  when  the  young  are 
hatching  in  the  spring. 

The  European  Fruit  Lecanium 

{Lecanium  corni  Bouche) 

The  smaller  limbs  and  twigs  of  fruit  trees  are 
Fig.  355.— Cottony     attacked  by  a  species  of  large  scale,  one  eighth 
ijj^j  '  of  an  inch  long  and  nearly  hemispherical.     When 

young,  it  is  yellowish,  but  when  older,  is  dark 
and  shiny.  The  upper  surface  of  the  insect  is  hardened,  thus  pro- 
tecting the  softer  parts  beneath ;  in  other  words,  the  scaly  covering 


CONSPICUOUS    SCALES    ON    THE    BARK 


261 


Fig.  356. — The  European  Fruit  Lecanium. 
Enlarged  to  twice  natural  size.  Orig- 
inal. 


is  really  a  part  of  the  insect 

itself  and  is  not  detachable  as 

with  the  San  Jose  or  oj^ster- 

shell  scales. 

The  best  remedial  measure 

is    a     winter    spraying    with 

crude  oil  emulsion  at  12  per 

cent  strength  or  distillate  oil 

emulsion  at  5  per  cent  strength. 

Distillate  oil  emulsion  is  prepared  by  dissolving  8  pounds  of  whale- 
oil  soap  in  3  gallons  of  hot  water,  adding  5  gallons  of  distillate  oil  and 

at  once  pumping  the  mixture 
back  on  itself.  To  dilute  for 
a  5  per  cent  strength  add  1 
gallon  of  emulsion  to  11^  gal- 
lons of  water. 

The    Terrapin    Scale    {Euleca- 
nium  nigrofasciatum  Perg.) 

The  terrapin  scale  is  nearly 
hemispherical,  about  one 
twelfth  of  an  inch  long,  nearly 
as  wide  and  high,  and  reddish 
in  color.  The  surface  is  marked 
with  darker,  radiating  spots  or 
streaks,  and  usually  there  is  a 
series  of  shallow  depressions 
near  the  margin.  The  food 
plants  include  peach,  apple, 
plum,  cherry,  quince,  pear,  and 
various  shade  trees. 

The  scale  is  difficult  to  kill. 

The  best  remedy  is  spraying  with 

20  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion  in  spring,  just  before  growth  starts.     Do 

not  apply  so  much  liquid  that  it  will  run  down  the  trunk  of  the  tree. 


Fig.  357.  —  Terrapin   Scale.     Below,  a 
single  scale,  enlarged.     Original. 


262 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


The  Spotted  Pelidnota  (Pelidnota  punctata  Linn.) 

Heavy-bodied,  slow-moving  beetles 
sometimes  are  found  in  considerable 
numbers  on  the  leaves  of  grapes. 
They  are  an  inch  long,  golden  yellow, 
and  each  wing  cover  is  marked  with 
three  small  black  dots,  widely  sepa- 
rated. The  immature  stages  are 
Fig.  358.  —The  Spotted  PeHdnota.  passed  in  rotting  wood.  The  beetles 
Original.  are  usually  controlled  by  hand  pick- 

ing, but  may  be  poisoned  with  applica- 
tions of  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead. 

The  Light-loving  Anomala 

(Anomala  lucicola  Fab.) 
Occasionally  the   foliage  of  grapes  is 
riddled  by  brownish  beetles,  one  third  of 
an  inch  long,  in  shape  and  appearance  like     Fig.   359.  — The  Light-loving 

,1  Anomala.    Enlarged  to  twice 

the     com-  ,      ,   .        r,  •  •    i 

natural  size.     Original. 

mon   June 

beetles,  but  smaller.  The  larvae  live  in 
the  soil  and  are  not  injurious.  The 
beetles  are  readily  killed  by  spraying 
with  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green. 

An  allied  species,  Anomala  marginaia 
Fab.,  is  found  in  the  South,  where  it 
sometimes  destroys  the  foliage  of  apples, 

grapes,  raspberries  or  blackberries.     It  is 

half  an  inch  long  and  light  brownish  in 

color. 

Still  another  species  with  similar  habits 

is  Anomala  undulata  Mels.,  one  third  of  an 

inch  long,  yellowish  in  color,  and  marked 

with  black.  -p^^     361.  — Anoma/a   imdu- 

The  above  are  pests  only  at  compara-       lata.    Enlarged.    Original. 


Fig.  360.  —  Anomala  marginata 
Enlarged.     Original. 


BEETLES    INJURING     THE    FOLIAGE 


263 


tively  rare  intervals.     Prompt  application  of  Paris  green  or  arsenate 
of  lead  will  poison  them. 


The  Cherry  Leaf -beetle  (Galerucella  cavicollis  Lee.) 
An  oval,  red  beetle,  one  fourth 
of  an  inch  long,  with  black  legs 
and  antennae,  feeds  on  the  leaves 
of  cherry,  plum,  and  peach,  and 
when  numerous  riddles  the  foli- 
age. The  larvae  also  feed  on  the 
leaves.  The  pupal  stage  is  passed 
in  the  ground,  and  there  are  two 
broods  annually.  The  remedy  is 
prompt  spraying  with  arsenate 
of  lead  or  Paris  green. 


Fig.    362.— The    Cherry  Leaf-beetle. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.    Original. 


The  Strawberry  Leaf-beetle  (Tijpophorus  canelliis  Fab.) 
A  chunky,  dark  beetle,  one  eighth  of  an  inch  long,  with  four  obhque, 
black  patches  on  its  wings,  occasionally  appears  in  large  numbers  in 

strawberry  fields  early  in 
the  season,  and  riddles 
the  leaves.  The  larvae 
or  grubs  which  follow 
shortly  are  small  and 
thick  bodied,  and  feed  on 
the  roots  of  the  plants. 
The  beetles  hibernate  as 
adults. 

Prompt  spraying  with 
Paris  green  or  arsenate 
of  lead  will  check  the 
beetles. 

Another  species  with 
somewhat  similar  feed- 
ing   habits,     Colaspis 


Fig.   363.  — Work    of    the   Strawberry   Leaf- 
beetle.     Original. 


264 


rSSTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


brimnea  Fab.,  is  occasional!}^  in  evidence  on  strawberry  or  grape,  and 
rarely  on  garden  or  field  crops.     It  is  yellowish,  oval,  rather  convex, 


Fig.  364.  —  Larva  ol  the  Straw- 
berry Leaf-beetle.  Enlarged 
and  natural  size.     Original. 


Fig.  365.  —  The  Strawberry  Leaf-beetle. 
Adult,  enlarged  and  natural  size.  Orig- 
inal. 


and  about  one  fifth  of  an  inch  long.     The  grubs  feed  on  the  roots. 
There  is  a  single  brood  annually.     Arsenicals  will  poison  the  adults. 


Fig.  366. —Pupa  of  the  Grape 
Colaspis.  Enlarged  and  natu- 
ral size.     Original. 


Fig.  367.  — The  Grape  Colaspis.    Adult, 
enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 


The  Grape  Flea-beetle  (Haltica  chalybea  Illig.) 

Early  in  the  growing  season,  the  swelling  buds  of  grapes  are  eaten 
into  and  destroyed,  and  as  the  tender  leaves  unfold  they  are  riddled. 
The  beetles  which  are  responsible  for  this  damage  are  small,  steely- 


FLEA-BEETLES    INJURING     THE    FOLIAGE 


265 


blue  insects,  one  eighth  to  one  fifth  of  an  inch  long,  and  rather  broad. 
They  are  able  to  fly  readily  and  jump  quickly. 

Eggs  are  soon  laid,  and  the  larvae  feed  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves, 
leaving  the  veins  untouched.  A  pupal  stage  is  passed  in  the  ground, 
and  there  is  a  sec- 
ond generation  in 
midsummer,  but 
damage  by  this  later 
brood  is  not  par- 
ticularly noticeable 
because  the  foliage 
is  relatively  more 
abundant. 

To  control,  spray 
with  4  pounds  of 
arsenate  of  lead 
and  1  gallon  of 
cheap  molasses  to 
50  gallons  of  water. 
Apply  the  spray 
early,  at  the  first 
appearance  of  the 
beetles,  before  they  have  opportunity  to  destroy  the  buds.  Where 
only  a  few  vines  are  concerned,  the  adults  may  be  jarred  off  onto 
sheets,  if  the  work  is  done  early  in  the  m.orning  before  the  beetles 


Fig.  368.  —  Work  of  the  Grape  Flea-beetle.      Oni^inal. 


Fig.  369. — Larva  (jf  the  Grape  Flea- 
beetle.  Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


Fig.  370.  — The  Grape  Flea-beetle. 
Adult,  enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


26G 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


become  active.  Cleaning  up 
rubbish  will  help  to  reduce 
the  numbers  of  overwintering 
adults. 

The  Strawberry  Flea-beetle 

(Haltica  ignita  Illig.) 

A  shining,  active  beetle,  one 
fifth  of  an  inch  long,  appears 
in  early  summer  on  the  leaves 
of  strawberry  and  other  plants. 
Its  shape  is  rather  oblong,  and 
its  color  ranges  from  golden  to 
greenish,  or  deep  blue.  Shortly 
afterward  the  larvae  may  be 
found  on  the  fohage,  usually 
on  the  under  leaves  where  they  are  concealed.     They  are  almost  black 

and  one  fourth  of  an  inch  long. 
The  body  surface  is  covered  with 
low  tubercles. 

Pupation  takes  place  in  the  soil. 
In  the  South  there  are  two  or  three 
generations  annually ;  in  the  North 
one. 

The   pest   is  easily   checked  by 

Fig.    372.— The    Strawberry    Flea-  .  ...... 

beetle.    Enlarged  and  natural  size,    spraymg  or  dustmg  With  arsenate 
Original.  of  lead  or  Paris  green. 


Fig.  371. 


Work  of  the  Strawberry  Flea- 
beetle.     Original. 


The  Tent  Caterpillar  (Malacosoma  americana  Fab.) 

In  the  spring  leaves  of  apple,  wild  cherrj^  and  other  plants  are 
stripped  by  this  caterpillar.  Its  work  is  characterized  by  the  forma- 
tion of  a  conspicuous  web  or  nest  in  the  forks  of  smaller  branches, 
the  caterpillars  spending  part  of  their  time  on  or  in  this  nest  and  going 


LARGE    CATERPILLARS    EATING     THE    LEAVES        267 

out  from  it  to  feed  on  the  leaves.     They  do  not  form  any  webs  on  the 
leaves,  but  only  the  tent  in  the  forks. 


Fig.  373.— The  Tent  CaterpiUar.     Original. 


The  full-grown  caterpillar  is  about  two  inches  long.  Its  body  is 
black,  ornamented  with  a  well-defined  white  hne  down  the  middle  of 
its  back,  and  with  a  row  of  blue  spots  along  each  side.  The  adult 
moth  is  dull  reddish  in  color. 


268 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND     SMALL    FRUITS 


The  eggs  are  laid  in  a  compact  mass,  encircling  a  twig,  and  remain 
where  placed  until  the  following  spring.  The  caterpillars  hatch  as 
soon   as   the  foliage  is  out. 

Nests  and  caterpillars  may 
be  destroyed  by  burning  with 
a  torch,  selecting  a  time 
when  the  caterpillars  are  at 
rest    on    or    in    their    web. 


Fig.  374.  —  Nest  of  the  Tent  Caterpillar. 
Original. 


Fig.  375.  —  Egg-mass  of  the  Tent 
Caterpillar.     Original. 


Fig.  376.  — Adult  of  the  Tent  Caterpillar. 
Original. 


They  will  be  found  there  when  the  weather  is  cloudy  or  stormy,  or 
early  in  the  morning  before  the  sun  is  well  up.  Instead  of  burning, 
the  nests  may  be  sprayed  with  25  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion  or  with 


LARGE    CATERPILLARS    EATING     THE    LEAVES        269 


pure  kerosene,  taking  care  not  to  get  this  on  the  surrounding  foHage. 
Spraying  the  foHage  with  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  will  easily 

poison  the  caterpillars. 


The  Forest  Tent  Caterpillar 
(Malacosoma  disstria  Hbn.) 
The   conniion   name   of  this  species 

is  misleading,  for  it  does  not  construct 

a  tent.     It  is,  however,  closely  related 

to  the  tent  cater- 
pillar, and  has  ac- 
quired   a    similar 

name.  While  often 

a    forest    pest,    it 

is    apt   to    attack 

fruit    tree    foliage 

as  well,  and  may 

strip      the      trees 

when  abundant. 
The    full-grown 

caterpillar  is   two 

inches   long,  dark 

in  color,   and  has 

a  row  of  conspicu- 

ous,  diamond- 
shaped, 
white  spots 
down  the 
middle  of 
its  back. 
Eggs    are 


Fig.   377.  — The   Forest   Tent 
Caterpillar.     Original. 


Fig.  378.  —  Egg-mass 
of  the  Forest  Tent 
Caterpillar.  Orig- 
inal. 


Fig. 


379.  — Adult    of    the    Forest   Tent 
Caterpillar.     Original. 


laid  in  a  compact  ring  around 
twigs,  and  covered  with  a  shin- 
ing varnish.  The  young  cater- 
pillars appear   early  in  spring. 


270 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


They  have  a  habit  of  travehng  back  and  forth  up  and  down  the  trunk 
and  hmbs  of  a  tree,  and  sometimes  collect  in  masses. 

On  orchard  trees  they  are  readily  controlled  by  poison  sprays, 
preferably  arsenate  of  lead. 


Fig.  380.  —  The  Yellow-necked  Caterpillar.    Original. 


The  Yellow-necked  Caterpillar  {Daiana  ministra  Dru.> 

In  iate  summer 
yellow  and  black 
striped  caterpillars 
feed  on  orchard 
foliage,  working  in 
colonies  and  strip- 
ping a  single  limb 
as  they  go.  The 
mature  caterpil- 
lar is  nearly  two 
inches  long.  Just  back  of  the  head  is  an  orange  ridge.  When  dis- 
turbed, the  caterpillars  raise  both  head  and  tail  into  the  air,  holding 
fast  by  the  middle. 

The  eggs  are  laid  on 
the  leaves  in  midsum- 
mer, by  a  brownish 
moth.  Winter  is  passed 
as  a  pupa  in  the  soil. 
There  is  one  generation 
annually. 

Removal  of  the  colo- 
nies of  caterpillars  by 
cutting  off  the  twig  or 
limb  is  the  usual  pro- 
cedure. They  may  easily 

be  killed  by  spraying  with  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead.  Where 
orchards  are  given  a  spraying  with  arsenicals  the  first  of  August  this 
pest  will  not  be  in  evidence. 


Fig.  381. 


■Adult   of   the  Yellow-necked   Cater- 
pillar.    Original. 


LARGE    CATERPILLARS    FEEDING    IN    COLONIES      271 
The  Red-humped  Apple  Caterpillar  (Schizura  concinna  S.  and  A.) 


Fig.  382.  —  The  Red-humped  Apple  Caterpillar.     Original. 

This  species  has  the  same  habits  and  life  round  as  the  preceding. 
It  is  abundant  in  late  summer,  and  feeds  in  colonies.     Like  the  other, 

it  jerks  its  head  and  tail  into  the  air 
when  alarmed.  The  body  of  the  cat- 
erpillar is  spiny,  and  is  marked  with 
fine,  narrow  stripes  of  black  and  yel- 
low. A  short  distance  back  of  the 
head  is  a  hump  which  is  conspicu- 
ously red. 


Fig.  38.3.  —  Eggs  of  the  Red- 
humped  Apple  Caterpil- 
lar.   Enlarged.     Original. 

Control  is  the  same 
as  for  the  preceding 
species.  The  two  will 
be  found  on  orchard 
foliage  at  about  the  same 
time  of  year. 


Fig.  384.  —  Adult   of  the    Red-humped  Apple 
Caterpillar.     SHghtly  enlarged.     Original. 


272 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Fig.  385.  —  Adult  of  the  Grapevine  Hog  Caterpillar. 
•  Original. 


Caterpillars  of  Hawk  Moths 
Large  and  conspicuous  worms  two  or  three  inches  long  are  often 

found  on  the  foliage  of  grapes  and  Virginia  creeper.     They  vary  in 

markings,       but 

usually  have  a 
prominent  spine 
or  a  distinct  hard 
tubercle  at  the 
hind  end.  They 
feed  singly,  have 
enormous  appe- 
tites, and  will 
easily  strip  parts 
of  the  vines  bare 
of  leaves. 

There  are  three 
or  four  species 
commonly    to   be 

seen.     All    are    the   immature   stages   of   swift-flying,   heavy-bodied 

moths,  observed  usually  in  the  evening,  poised  over  flowers,  sipping 

the   nectar,   and   known 

locally  in  some  sections  as 

"  humming-bird  moths." 

The  pupal  stage  is  passed 

in  the  soil.     There  is  one 

generation  annually. 
The     Grapevine    Hog 

Caterpillar    {Ampelopha- 

gus  myron  Cram.)  is  two 

inches     long,     yellowish 

green,    has     two    white 

stripes    down    the   back 

and  seven  oblique  stripes 

on  each  side,  and  seven  pink  or  red  spots  down  the  middle  of  the 

back.     There  is  a  horn  near  the  hind  end.     The  Achemon   Sphinx 


Fig.  386. 


The  Achemon  Sphinx.     Slightly 
reduced.     Original. 


CONSPICUOUS    CATERPILLARS    DESTROYING    FOLIAGE    273 

(Pholus  achemon  Dru.)  is  thi'ee  inches  or  more  long  when  full  grown, 
yellowish  green  in  color  to  reddish  brown,  and  has  six  conspicuous 
white  dashes  or  spots  down  each  side.     The  third  segment  back  of 


Fig.  387.  — Larva  of  the  Achemon  Sphinx.     Original. 

the  head  is  enlarged.  At  the  hind  end  is  a  horn,  changing  to  a 
round  "  eyespot  "  as  the  caterpillar  nears  maturity.  Abbott's  Spliinx 
(Sphecodina  abbottii  Swain)  reaches  a  length  of  2|   inches,  is    light 


«Bfc_ 

^ 

m 

^SS^^^Mto 

W..J^;'~^ 

r 

>iq| 

f5» 

'iG.  388.  —  The  Abbott's  Sphinx.     Original. 


brown  in  color  with  darker  streaks  lengthwise  of  the  body  and 
black  Hnes  across  each  segment.  At  the  hind  end  is  a  conspicuous, 
round  black  spot  margined  with  yellow. 


274 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AN  J)    SMALL    FRUITS 


Since  the  larvae  are  conspicuous  and  are  not  numerous,  hand  picking 
is  feasible.  Arsenical  poisons,  such  as  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of 
lead,  may  be  used  if  desired. 


Fig.  389.  —  Larva  of  the  Abbott's  Sphinx.     Original. 

The  Plum-tree  Sphinx  (Sphinx  drupiferarum  S.  and  A.) 

Large,  green  caterpillars  are  sometimes  in  evidence  on  the  foliage 
of  plum  trees,  devouring  the  leaves.     They  are  naked  worms,  two 

inches  or  more  in  length, 
the  body  marked  on  each 
side  with  seven  diagonal 
dashes  of  narrow  white 
bordered  with  purple. 
On  the  hind  end  is  a 
conspicuous  spine.  The 
adults  are  strong-flying 
moths,  seen  hovering 
over  flowers  in  the  eve- 
ning. The  pupal  stage  is 
passed  in  the  soil.  There  is  one  generation  annually.  Hand  picking 
is  the  usual  remedy,  but  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green  may  be  used 
on  the  fohage  if  desired. 

The  False  Army-worm  (Calocampa  nubera  Lint.) 

In  recent  seasons,  cranberry  foliage  has  been  severely  injured  by  a 
large  caterpillar,  two  inches  long  when  full  grown,  dark  green  in  color, 


Fig.    390.— Adult  Plum-tree  Sphinx.     Slightly 
reduced.     Original. 


CONSPICUOUS    CATERPILLARS    DESTROYING    FOLIAGE    275 

somewhat  spotted  with  white,  and  with  a  greenish  yellow  head.  The 
depredations  take  place  in  early  summer.  The  moths  are  out  in 
August  and  September. 

Bogs  attacked  may  be  reflowed  for  24  hours,  when  the  worms  are 
found  at  work,  thus  killing  them  or  dislodging  them  from  the  vines. 
Arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green  may  be  used  to  advantage  if  applied 
while  the  worms  are  small. 


The  Smeared  Dagger  (Acronyda  (Apatela)  oblinita  S.  and  A.) 

Conspicuous  cater- 
pillars, 11  inches  long 
when  full  grown,  feed 
on  the  foliage  of 
strawberries  and  rasp- 
berries, and  occasion- 

FiG.    391.  —  Larva    of  the 
Smeared  Dagger.   Original. 

ally  on  clover.  The  body 
is  velvety  black.  There  is 
a  band  of  red  across  the 
back  on  each  segment,  red 
tubercles  and  yellow  spots 
along  the  back,  and  a 
yellow  band  along  each  side.  There  are  two  broods  annually. 
Control  consists  in  prompt  apphcation  of  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris 
green. 

The  Eight-spotted  Forester  (Alypia  octomaculata  Fab.) 

The  foliage  of  grapes,  and 
often  of  Virginia  creeper,  is 
eaten  by  conspicuous  naked 
caterpillars,  1|  inches  long 
when  mature.     The  head  is 

Fig.   393. -Larva  of  the  Eight-spotted       ^^^^^^^  orange.     There  is  an 
Forester.    Original.  orange  band  acioss  each  seg- 


FiG.  392. — The  Smeared  Dagger.     Original. 


^^^grtMs^jm^ 


276 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Fig.  394.— The  Eight-spotted  Forester. 
Slightly  enlarged.     Original. 


merit,  and  on  each  side  of  the 
body  is  a  wav}^  white  longi- 
tudinal band,  faint  on  the 
segments  toward  the  head, 
but  prominent  toward  the 
hind  end.  The  adult  moth 
is  black,  marked  with  eight 
large  spots.  The  readiest 
means  of  control  is  to  apply 
arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green 
to  the  foliage. 


The  Grape-leaf  Skeletonizer  ( Harrisina  americana  Guer-Men.) 

Orderly  rows  of  small,  yellowish,  black-spotted  caterpillars  feed  on 

the  surface  of  grape  leaves,  devouring  the  surface  tissue,  but  leaving 

the  veins  untouched.     Later,  when  more  nearly  full  grown,  the  larvae 

separate  and  work  singly,  eating  all  of  the  leaf  except  the  main  ribs. 


?m 


.^"X. 


Fig.  395.  —  Larva  of  the  Grape-leaf 
Skeletonizer.     Original. 

The  mature  caterpillar  is  a  half 
inch  long. 

The  parent  moth  emerges  in 
June,  and  lays  eggs  on  the  under 
side    of    grape   leaves.     Larvae 

hatched  from  these  eggs  complete  their  growth  in  a  month  to  six 
weeks,  and  a  second  generation  of  moths  come  out  in  July  or  August, 
followed  by  a  second  lot  of  caterpillars.  The  insect  passes  the  win- 
ter in  the  pupal  stage  in  dead  leaves  or  rubbish. 


Fig.  396.  —Adult  of  the  Grape-leaf  Skele- 
tonizer, enlarged  to  three  times  natural 
size.     Original. 


SMALL    CATERPILLARS    EATING     THE    LEAF    SURFACE    277 

When  the  caterpillars  are  feeding  together,  the  simplest  means  of 
control  is  to  remove  the  leaves  on  which  they  are  at  work.  Later, 
when  the  larvae  have  scattered,  it  is  necessary  to  apply  arsenate  of 
lead  or  Paris  green.  If  grapes  are  sprayed  early  with  arsenicals, 
enough  of  the  poison  will  adhere  to  check  these  insects  when  they  begin 
feeding. 


The  Apple-leaf  Skeletonizer  {Canarsia  hammondi  Riley) 

A  small,  brown  caterpillar,  not  more  than  half  an  inch  long  when 
full  grown,  injures  apple  foliage  by  eating  the  surface  of  the  leaves. 


Fk 


397.  —  Work  of  the  Apple-leaf  Skele- 
tonizer.    Original. 


erpillar  is  marked  by  four  black  dots 
the   first  segment  and  two 
on  the  second. 

The  pupal  stage  is  passed 
on  the  leaf.  The  adult  is 
a  grayish  moth,  expanding 
half  an  inch.  There  are  two 
or  three  broods  in  a  season. 

The  application   of  arse- 
nate of  lead  or  Paris  green 
to  the  foliage  \\\\\  soon  check         tonize 
the  pest.     It  is  necessary  to         inal. 


Fig.  398.  —  Larva  of  the  Apple-leai 
Skeletonizer.    Enlarged.    Original. 

It  begins  work  near  the  center 
of  the  leaf,  and  spins  over  itself 
a  thin  web.  Frequently  sev- 
eral of  the  worms  will  be  found 
under  a  single  web.  The  cat- 
just  back  of  the  head,  two  on 


'mm 


9.— Adult  of  the  Apple-Leaf  Skele- 
r.     Enlarged  and  natural  size.    Orig- 


278 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


reach  the  terminal  leaves,  for  the  caterpillars  are  apt  to  feed  in  such 
locations. 


The  Palmer-worm  {Dichomeris  ligulellus  Hbn.  (  Ypsolophus  pometellus 

Harr.)) 

At  occasional  periods,  separated  by  long  intervals,  a  small  striped 
caterpillar   becomes   numerous   on   apple   and   other   trees,   severely 

injuring  the  foliage  and 
often  eating  irregular  cavi- 
ties in  the  surface  of  the 
young  fruit.  The  full- 
grown  worm  is  about  a 
half  inch  long,  has  three 
narrow  dark  stripes  down 
its  back,  and  usually  spins 
a  few  strands  of  silk  over 
itself,  sometimes  thus 
The   adult   is   a  tiny  moth. 


Fig.  400.  — Adult  of  the  Palmer- worm, 
larged  and  natural  size.     Original. 


bending    over    the    edge   of    a 

The  best  remedy  is  a 
prompt  application  of  Paris 
green  or  arsenate  of  lead. 

The  Apple-leaf  Bucculatrix 

{Bucculatrix  pomifoliella 
Clem.) 

Greenish  yellow  caterpil- 
lars, half  an  inch  long  when 
full  grown,  feed  first  in  mines 
within  the  leaf  tissues  of 
apples,  or  related  trees,  and 
later  on  the  surface,  skele- 
tonizing the  leaf.  The  seg- 
ments of  the  caterpillar's  body 
are  prominent  and  rounded. 


leaf. 


■ 

>>• 

F^ 

1 

V^^yii^lfll 

J 

J 

H^-«d 

r 

4' 

PHH^^^^ 

r^ 

t^^ 

Fig.  401.  —  Work  of  the  Apple-leaf  Buccu- 
latrix.    Original. 


SMALL    CATERPILLARS    INJURING    THE    LEAVES 


279 


Fig.  402.— Cocoon  of  the  Applc-luut  Buccukitrix.     Enlarged  and  natural  size. 

Original. 

In  the  fall  the  larvjB  migrate  to  twigs  or  branches  and  make 
small,  wliitish,  ribbed  cocoons,  often  somewhat  conspicuous  when 
occurring  in  large  numbers. 
The  tiny  parent  moth  emerges 
from  the  cocoon  the  following 
spring. 

The  use  of  Paris  green  or  arse- 
nate of  lead  to  poison  the  cater- 
pillars when  they  begin  feeding 
on  the  surface  of  the  leaf  is  the 
easiest  remedy,  although  a  win- 
ter spraying  with  lime  sulphur 
or  15  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion 
will  be  likely  to  kill  the  overwin- 
tering form.  The  species  is 
seldom  a  genuine  pest. 


Fig.  403.  — Adult  of  the  Apple-leaf 
Bucculatrix.  Enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original. 


The  Spring  Canker-worm  {Paleacrita  vernata  Peck) 
A  small,  naked  measuring  worm  or  inchworm  attacks  the  foliage  of 
apple  trees  in  early  spring.     At  first  small  holes  are  eaten  in  the  leaves, 


280 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


but  later  the  entire  leaf  is  destroyed,  except 
worms  are  three  fourths  to  one  inch  long,  naked 


Fig.  404.  —  The  Spring  Canker-worm.     Original. 

moving,  they  arch  the  body  so  as  to  bring  the 
front.  This  species  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  similar  fall  canker- 
worm  by  the  fact  that  the  latter  has 
an  additional  pair  of  rather  small  pro- 
legs  near  the  hind  end. 


the  main  veins.  The 
dark  green,  and  some- 
times rather  dis- 
tinctly striped. 
They  have  a  pair 
of  prolegs  or  clasp- 
ers  on  the  hind 
end,  a  single  pair 
a  short  distance 
forward  of  these, 
but  no  other  legs 
from  that  point  to 
the  three  pairs  of 
true  legs  near  the 
front  end  of  the 
body.  Thus,  in 
hind  end  up  near  the 


Fig.  405.  —  Adult  female  of  the  Spring  Can- 
ker-worm.     Enlarged    and     natural    size.       Fig.  406.  —  Work    of  Canker- 
Original,  worms.     Original. 


SFANWORMS    EATING     THE    LEAVES 


281 


When  full  grown,  the  worms  enter  the  ground,  and  remain  there 
until  the  following  spring.  The  adults  come  out  several  weeks  before 
the  apple  is  due  to  blossom.  The  female  is  wingless,  crawls  up  the 
trunk,  and  lays  her  eggs.  The  male  is  winged.  The  eggs  hatch  after 
the  apple  leaves  have  unfolded. 

Spraying  with  arsenicals,  using  rather  heavy  dosage,  will  kill  the 
worms.  Instead  of  this  the  trees  may  be  banded  six  weeks  before  the 
apples  are  due  to  bloom,  so  as  to  prevent  the  females  or  the  worms 
from  reaching  the  upper  parts  of  the  tree.  Orchards  that  are  regu- 
larly sprayed  with 
poisons,  such  as  arse- 
nate of  lead  or  Paris 
green,  will  not  suffer 
from  tliis  pest. 

The  Fall  Canker-worm 

{Alsophila  pometaria 
Harr.) 

This  species  is  quite 
similar  in  characteris- 
tics to  the  spring  can- 
ker-worm. The  larva 
may  readily  be  recog- 
nized from  the  fact 
that  it  has  two  pairs 
of  prolegs  near  the 
hind  end  of  the  body 
just  forward  of  the 
claspers  located  on  the 
extreme  hind  end.  Fig.  407. 
whereas  the  spring 
canker-worm  has  only  one  pair.  The  injury  wrought  by  the  two 
species  is  identical.  Either  will  strip  the  foliage  from  apple  trees  in 
earl}'  spring,  when  numerous. 


■The   Fall   Canker-worm, 
larged.     Original. 


Slightly  en- 


282 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


The  life  round  in  this  species  is  different  from  that  of  the  spring 
canker-worm.     The  full-grown  larva  enters  the  soil  to  transform,  but 

the  adults  emerge  in  the  fall,  instead 
of  the  spring.  The  female  is  wingless, 
and  at  once  climbs  the  trunk  and  lays 
her  eggs.  These  eggs  remain  over  win- 
ter. They  hatch  in  the  spring,  with 
the  opening  of  the  apple  foliage. 

Spraying  with  arsenical  poisons  will 
control  this  species.  If  it  is  desired  to 
control  the  pest  by  banding,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  apply  bands  in  the  fall, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  females  from 
crawling  up  to  the  higher  parts  of  the 
tree,  and  to  renew  the  bands  in  the  spring  to  prevent  the  young 
worms  from  ascending.  The  females,  if  stopped  in  the  fall  by  bands, 
will  lay  eggs  below  the  ob- 
structions, and  thus  further 
banding  at  the  hatching  sea- 
son in  the  spring  is  essential. 


The  Currant  Spanworm 

{Cymatophora  ribearia  Fitch) 

This  worm  is  one    of   the 

loopers  or  measuring  worms. 


Fig.  408.— Eggs  of  the  Fall 
Canker-worm.  Enlarged  and 
natural  size.     Original. 


fS'^ 


Fig.  410.  —  Adult  of   the    Currant    Span- 
worm.    Original. 


Fig.    409.  —  The     Currant     Spanworm. 
Slightly  enlarged.     Original. 


It  is  a  little  over  an  inch  long 
when  mature,  is  Ught  yellow- 
ish or  cream  colored,  and  dot- 
ted with  black.  The  worms 
appear  in  early  spring  from 
eggs  laid  on  the  stems  the 
previous  summer  by  the  par- 
ent moth.  When  they  are 
very  abundant,  the  foliage  is 
destroyed  by  them. 


SPANWORMS    EATING    THE    LEAVES 


283 


Fig.  411.  — Adult   of    the    Cran- 
berry Spanworm.     Original. 


Spraying  with  arsenical  poisons  is  a  ready  remedy.  Usually  the 
currants  are  not  ripe  when  the  worms  appear,  and  therefore  poison 
sprays  may  be  used  safely. 

The  Cranberry  Spanworm  {Chora  pampinaria  Guen.) 
The  leaves  of  cranberry,  asparagus,  cotton,  strawberry,  apple,  pear, 

clover,  and  others  are  sometimes  eaten  by  a  brownish  or  olive  span- 
worm,   1|  inches  long  when  mature. 

Its    body  is   streaked   and  mottled 

with  hghter  and  darker  shades.     On 

the  back,  about  one  third  of  the  way 

to  the  rear  of  the  head,  are  two  low 

black  tubercles,  and  near  the  hind 

end  are  two  more.     There  are  two 

pairs  of  fleshy  false  legs  near  the  hind 

end,  and  three  pairs  of  true  legs  close 

to  the  front  end.     The  worms  have 

a  habit  of  resting  motionless,  hold- 
ing fast  to  a  stem  by  the  hind  legs,  the  body  projecting  at  an  angle. 
The  adult  is  a  gray  moth  marked  with  many  spots  and  zigzag  lines 

of  black  and  brown.     There   are  two   generations  annually,   larvae 

appearing    in   late  June  and 
again  in  August. 

Dusting  or  spraying  with 
arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green 
will  poison  the  worms. 

The  Elm  Spanworm 

{Ennomos  subsignarius  Hbn.) 

In  June  the  larvae  of  this 
moth  may  be  found  on  the 
foliage  of  a  great  variety  of 
trees,  including  apple,  pear,  or  other  fruits  as  well  as  forest  trees. 
Usually  they  are  brown,  but  sometimes  green,  look  much  like  a 
twig,  and  have  three  low  tubercles  on  the  back,  one  near  the  hind 


iiG.  412.  —  Adult  of  the  Elm  Spanworm. 
Original. 


284 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Fig.  413. — Larva  of  the  Lime-tree 
Winter  Moth.     Original. 


end,  another  a  third  of  the  way  toward  the  head  end,  and  another 
two  thirds  of  the  way  toward  the  head.  They  have  no  feet  along 
the  middle  part  of  the  body,  and  move  with  a  looping  gait.  The  adult 
is  a  wliite  moth,  expanding  about  1^  inches.     Eggs  are  laid  in  Juty, 

in  masses  on  the  twigs,  and  hatch 
the  following  summer. 

On  orchard  trees  the  best  meas- 
ure of  control  is  an  application  of 
arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green. 

The  Lime-tree  Winter  Moth 

{Erannis  tiliaria  Harr.) 
The  larva  of  this  species  some- 
times strips  the  foliage  of  apple 
trees.  It  is  a  spanworm  or  "  measuring  worm,"  1|  inches  long  when 
full  grown,  the  body  yellowish  above  with  several  fine  black  lines 
down  its  back,  the  under 
side  lighter. 

The  adult  moths 
usually  emerge  in  the  fall, 
but  occasionally  not  until 
spring.  The  male  is 
winged,  but  the  female  is 
spiderlike  and  wingless. 
The  caterpillars  are  at 
work  in  the  early  weeks 
of  the  growing  season. 
Pupation  takes  place  in 
the  ground. 

In  its  appearance  and  habits  this  species  resembles  the  canker-worms. 
The  remedies  recommended  for  the  latter  will  apply  to  this  pest. 


Fig.  414. — The  Lime-tree  Winter  Moth. 
Original. 


The  Chain  Spotted  Geometer  {Cingilia  catenaria  Dru.) 

Characteristic,  slender  measuring  worms,  1|  inches  long  when  full 
grown,  feed  on  the  foliage  of  various  bush  fruits.     The  caterpillar 


SAWFLY    LARVAE    EATING     THE    LEAVES 


285 


is  cylindrical,  light  yellow, 
marked  with  two  fine,  brown 
lines  on  the  back  and  two  on 
the  sides,  and  distinctly  marked 
with  two  black  dots  on  each 
segment. 

Pupation    takes    place    in    a 

delicate,  lace-like  cocoon  among  the  leaves.     The  adult  moths  are 

numerous  in  late  summer. 
The   worms    are   easily 

poisoned  by  applying  arsenate 

of  lead  or  Paris  green  to  the 

foliage. 


Fig.  415.  —  Larva  of  the  Chain  Spotted 
Geometer.    Original. 


Fig.     416.  — Adult    of    the    Chain 
Spotted  Geometer.     Original. 

The  Imported  Currant  Worm 
{Pteronus  ribesii  Scop.) 
Currants    and    gooseberries 
are  subject  to  periodical  strip- 
ping by  this  worm.     Through- 
out most  of  its   existence  the 
larva    is     greenish     in     color, 
marked  with   numerous  black 
dots,    but    just    before    trans- 
forming it  is   clear  green  without  any  dots.     When  full  grown,  its 
length  is  three  fourths  of  an  inch. 


Fig.  417.  —  The  Imported  Currant  Worm. 
Work  and  larviE.     Original. 


286 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Fig.  418.  —  Cocoons   of   the   Imported 
Currant  Worm.     Original. 

the  spraying  is  done  early,  arsenate 

fruit  is  coloring,  use 

hellebore. 

The  Native  Cur- 
rant Worm  (Di- 
phadnus  appendicu- 
latus  Hartig)  causes 
similar  defoliation. 
The  larva  is  half  an 
inch  long,  and  light 


The  pupal  stage  is  passed  in 
little  cells  in  the  soil.  There 
are  two  generations,  one  lot  of 
worms  appearing  in  early  sum- 
mer and  the  second  brood  five 
or  six  weeks  later.  Hibernation 
takes  place  in  the  pupal  stage. 
The  adult  is  a  sawfly. 

Until   currants   are   ripe   the 

best  remedy  is  an  apphcation 

of   Paris    green    and    lime.     If 

of  lead  may  be  used.     When  the 


Fig.  420.— Adult  of  the  Native  Cur- 
rant Worm.  Enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original. 


Fig.  419.  —  Adult  of  the  Imported  Cur- 
rant Worm.  Enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original. 

green,  without  black  spots.  There 
are  two  generations.  The  adult 
is  a  sawfly.  The  measures  of  con- 
trol are  the  same  as  for  the  im- 
ported currant  worm.  Paris  green 
may  be  used  safely  until  the  fruit 
is  half  grown, 


SAWFLY    LARV.^    EATING     THE    LEAVES 


287 


The  Raspberry  Sawfly  {Monophadnoides  rubi  Harr.) 

Greenish,  spiny  worms  eat  the  foHage  of  raspberry  and  blackberry, 
stripping  the  bushes  and  leaving  only  the  main  leaf  veins.  The  full- 
grown  larva  is  three  fourths  of  an  inch  long  and  covered  with  short 


Fig.  421.  —  Larva  of  tiie  Raspberry 
Sawfly.     Original. 


Fig.  422.  —  The  Raspberry  Sawfly. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.  Orig- 
inal. 


spines,  which  are  dark  on  its  back  but  light  on  its  sides.  When  ma- 
ture, the  worms  enter  the  ground,  and  remain  there  until  the  follow- 
ing spring,  when  the  transformation  to  the  adult  sawfly  takes  place. 

Paris  green  or  ar- 
senate of  lead  may  be 
used  to  poison  the 
worms  until  the  fruit 
is  set.  After  that  use 
hellebore. 

The  Grape  Sawfly 

{Selandria  vitis  Say) 

Greenish  or  yellowish 
slugs,    their    bodies 


dotted  with  black,  feed 


Fig.    423.  —  The   Grape    Sawfly.      Enlarged   and 
natural  size.    Original. 


in  groups  on  the  leaves 

of  grapes,   usually  on 

the  under  side  of  the  leaf.     The  adult  is  a  sawfly.     There  are  two 

broods  annually. 


288 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL     FRUITS 


An  application  of  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green  is  the  best  control 
measure  until  the  fruit  is  well  colored. 

The    Strawberry    Sawfly  {Empria  {Harpiphorus)  maculata  Nort.) 

About  the  time  that  strawberries  begin  blooming,  the  leaves  are 
eaten  by  sluglike  worms,  half  an  inch  long,  yellowish  in  color,  with  a 
pale  stripe  down  the  back.     When  not  feeding,  the  slugs  often  rest  on 


Fig.  424. — The  Strawberry  Sawfly.    Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 

the  under  surface  of  the  leaf,  coiled  in  a  sort  of  spiral.  The  adults  are 
small,  four-winged  insects.  Winter  is  passed  in  the  ground.  There 
is  one  brood  each  year. 

The  best  means  of  control  is  an  early  application  of  arsenical  poisons. 
If  ripe  strawberries  are  already  on  the  vines  when  injury  is  noted, 
hellebore  may  be  used. 


The  Pear-slug  (Caliroa  {Eriocampoides)  cerasi  Linn.) 

Small,  dark  green,  slimy  slugs  eat  the  surface  of  the  leaves  of  pear, 
cherry,  and  plum,  gnawing  off  the  epidermis  and  leaving  the  veins  and 
lower  surface.     The  tissues  where  they  have  been  at  work  turn  brown, 


SLUGS    EATING     THE    LEAF    SURFACE 


289 


Fig.  42^ 


Work  and  larva  of  the  Pear-slug.     Original. 


and  if  the  slugs  are  numerous,  the  entire  foUage  of  the  tree  may  look 
scorched  and  drop  off.  When  nearly  full  grown,  the  larvse  lose  their 
slimy  coating  with  the  last 
molt,  and  are  then  a  clear  yel- 
low in  color. 

There  are  two  or  three  gen- 
erations in  a  season.  The 
slugs  are  apt  to  be  more  nu- 
merous in  the  middle  or  latter 
part  of  summer.  The  adult  is 
a  sawfly.  Eggs  are  laid  within 
the  tissues  of  tlie  leaf. 

Ordinarily  the  simplest  means 
of  control  is  to  apply  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  to  the  foliage. 
The  slugs  are  easily  killed. 

The  Peach  and  Plum  Slug  {Caliroa  amygdalina  Rohwer) 

The  work  of  this  insect  is  similar  to  that  of  the  common  pear-slug. 
The  species  is  found  in  the  Gulf  states.  There  are  half  a  dozen  or  more 
generations  each  season,  and  injury  is  most  severe  toward  the  end  of 
summer.     Spraying  with  an  arsenical  poison  is  the  readiest  remedy. 


Fig.  426.  — Adult  of  the  Pear-slug.    En- 
larged and  natural  size.     Original. 


290 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


The  Gypsy  Moth  {PortJietria  dispar  Linn.) 

This  notorious  European  pest  has  now  become  established  in  the 
New  England  states,  where  it  is  doing  immense  damage,  defoli- 
ating forest,  shade,  and  fruit 
trees.  Evergreens  are  freely  at- 
tacked after  the  caterpillars  are 
half  grown. 

The  full-grown  gypsy  caterpil- 
lar is  2^  inches  long,  hairy,  and 
dark  or  black  in  general  color. 
Beginning  just  behind  the  head 
there  is  a  double  row  of  five  dark 
blue  spots  down  the  back,  fol- 
lowed by  a  double  row  of  six 
dark  red  spots,  the  last  pair  of 
the  latter  just  above   the  hind 


Fig.    427.  —  Larva    of    the    Gypsy- 
Moth.     Original. 

end.  After  they  are  three 
fourths  grown  the  caterpillars 
tend  to  feed  only  at  night,  com- 
ing down  the  trunks  of  the  trees 
and  hiding  or  resting  in  masses 
during  daylight. 

Pupation   takes    place   in   a 
flimsy  cocoon,  on  the  trunk  or 


Fig.  4_'b.  —  Egg-massof  the  Gypsy  Moth 
on  bark.     Original. 


LARGE,   HAIRY    CATERPILLARS    EATING    THE    LEAVES    291 


near  by,   and   the  adult  moths  are  out  in  July  and  August.     The 

female  is  light  grayish,  hea\-y  bodied,  and  has  a  wing  expanse  of  two 

inches,  but  cannot 

fly.     The  male  is 

much   smaller, 

brown   in  general 

color,    and    flies 

readily.     Eggs  are 

laid  in  masses,  and 

are  covered    with 

yello'wish    hairs 

from  the  body  of 

the  female.      Egg 

masses    occur    on 

the  trunks  of  trees, 

the  under  side  of 

branches,  or  on  any 


Fig.  429.  —  Newly  hatched  larvse  of  the  Gypsy  Moth 
on  egg-mass  ;  and  empty  pupal  shell.     Original. 


permanent  object  near  at  hand.  The  egg  stage  lasts  until  the  follow- 
ing May,  when  the  young  caterpillars  hatch  and  at  once  begin  feeding. 
Large  sums  ha^-e  been  spent  by  federal,  state,  and  town  author- 
ities to  prevent  the  spread  of 
this  pest,  reduce  its  ravages, 
and  introduce  its  natural 
enemies. 

The  egg  masses  may  be 
painted  with  creosote  at  any 
time  between  September  and 
the  following  April.  This  will 
penetrate  and  kill  the  eggs. 

The  larvse  may  be  poisoned 
by  spraying  with  arsenate   of 


Fig.  430. 


-The  Gypsy  Moth.    Adult  male. 
Original. 


lead,  using  5  to  8  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water,  and  applying  early 
while  the  larvse  are  still  small.  Tall  trees  may  be  banded  with 
burlap,  so  as  to  provide  a  place  where  the  caterpillars  will  hide  by 
day  and  where  they  may  be  killed  by  mechanical  means. 


292 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Fig.  431.  — The  Gypsy  Moth.     Adult  female.     Original. 


Evergreens  may  be  protected  by  banding  the  trunks  with  tanglefoot 

to  prevent  larvae  from  crawling 
up  into  them  after  getting  a  start 
on  deciduous  growth  near  by.  The 
same  plan  is  useful  to  prevent  in- 
jur}' to  fruit  or  shade  trees  that 
have  been  properly  cared  for  but 
are  threatened  by  larvae  coming 
from  egg  masses  in  stone  walls  or 
on  neglected  growth  close  at  hand. 
In  woods  of  mixed  growth  it  is 
advisable  to  remove  all  hard  wood, 
leaving  only  a  stand  of  pure  ever- 
green, since  the  larvae  cannot  live 
on  evergreens  until  half  grown. 

The  Browntail  Moth 

(Euproctis  chrysorrJwea  Linn.) 
Throughout   winter   the   small, 
compact  nests  of  this  insect  are 
conspicuous  on  the  tips   of   twigs 
of  many  species  of   orchard   and 
Fig.  432.  -  Winter  nest  of  the  Brown-      ^^^^de  trees  and  shrubs.      A  typical 
tail  Moth.    Original.  nest  usually  includes  two  or  three 


HAIRY    CATERPILLARS    EATING     THE    LEAVES         293 


leaves  woven  up  tightly  in  silk,  and  attached  to  the  twig  by  a  tough 
strand  of  silk,  which  often  follows  the  petiole  of  a  leaf.  Evergreens 
are  not  attacked  by  this  species. 

Within  the  nest  are  several  hundred  very  small  caterpillars.     Before 
foliage  starts  in  the  spring  they  come  out  and  wander  over  the  twigs 


P'iG.  433.  —  Larva  of  the  Browntail 
Moth.    Original. 


Fig.  434.  —  Adult  Browntail  Moths. 
Male  above,  female  below.     Original. 


near  the  nest.  When  growth  starts,  they  begin  at  once  feeding  on  the 
foliage,  often  eating  the  leaves  as  fast  as  they  unfold. 

The  mature  caterpillar  is  an  uich  and  a  quarter  long,  brownish  in 
general  color,  marked  with  a  row  of  oblique  white  dashes  down  each 
side  of  its  back,  and  with  two  orange  spots  near  the  hind  end,  one  be- 
hind the  other. 

Pupation  takes  place  among  the  leaves.  The  adults  emerge  in 
July.  Their  wings  are  pure  white,  and  the  body  of  the  female  bears  a 
tuft  of  brown  hairs  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  The  moths  fly  at  night 
and  often  are  seen  in  large  numbers  around  lights.  Eggs  are  laid  on 
the  leaves  and  hatch  early  in  August.     The  young  caterpillars  skeleton- 


294 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


ize  leaves  near  by,  giving  the  foliage  a  brown  appearance.  After  a 
few  weeks  they  make  their  winter  nest  and  retire  to  it,  remaining 
therein  until  the  following  spring. 

In  addition  to  the  damage  done  by  the  caterpillars  there  is  an  annoy- 
ing and  sometimes  serious  poisoning  of  human  beings  by  barbed  hairs 
borne  by  the  caterpillars.     These  hairs  often  are  carried  by  the  wind. 


Fig.  435. 


Egg-masses  and  adult  female  of  the  Browntail  Moth. 
Original. 


The  ordinary  means  of  control  is  the  removal  and  burning  of  the 
winter  nests.  On  fruit  trees  it  is  a  better  plan  to  spray  with  arsenical 
poisons  the  first  week  in  August,  at  the  time  when  the  caterpillars  are 
just  hatching  from  the  egg.  They  are  not  resistant  to  poison  when 
small,  and  a  moderate  dose  will  kill  them.  Spraying  in  the  spring  is 
not  satisfactory. 


TUFTED    CATERPILLARS    EATING    THE    LEAVES       295 


The  Tussock  Moths 
Three  species  of  caterpillars  of  striking  appearance,  the  larval  stages 
of  tussock  moths,  infest  the  foliage  of  orchard  and  forest  trees.     Of 


Fig.  -430. 


Larva  of  the  Rusty  Tussock  ISIotL. 
Original. 


Fig.  437.  —  Egg-mass  of  the 
White  Marked  Tussock 
Moth  on  cocoon.    Original. 


these  the  White  Marked  Tussock  Moth 
{Hemerocampa  leucostigma^.  and  A.)  is  in 
many  sections  the  most  common,  while 
in  others  the  Rusty  Tussock  Moth  {Hem- 
erocampa antiqua  Linn.)  or  the  Definite  Marked  Tussock  Moth 
(Hemerocampa  definita  Pack.)  may  be  the  one  most  in  evidence. 


Fig.  438.— The  White  Marked   Tussock 
Moth.    Adult  male.     Original. 


Fig.   439.  —  The    Rusty  Tussock 
Moth.    Adult  female.    Original. 


The  caterpillar  of  the  white  marked  tussock  moth  is  hairy,  1|  to  1| 
inches  long,  yellow,  striped  with  black.  Its  head  is  bright  red.  There 
are  four  tufts  of  white  hair  on  its  back,  a  pencil  of  black  hair  projecting 


296 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


forward  on  either  side  of  its  head,  and  a  similar  single  pencil  projecting 

back  from  the  hind  end.     The  caterpillars  of  the  other  two  species  are 

somewhat  similar 
in  appearance, 
though  not  so 
brightly  colored. 

The  eggs  of  the 
first  species  are 
laid  in  a  mass  of 
frothy,  white  sub- 
stance, on  top  of 
the  cocoon  of  the 
female,  on  the  bark 
of  trunk  or  limb. 
Fig.  440.— Egg-mass  of  the  Rusty  Tussock  Moth.  The     eggs    of    the 

Original.  others  are  not  cov- 

ered with  froth.     The  adult  females  are  wingless,  looking  somewhat 

like  gray   spiders.     They    emerge  and  lay 

their  eggs  in  late  summer. 

The  simplest  means  of  control  is  to  spray 

with   arsenical   poison,    either    Paris   green 

or  arsenate  of  lead.     Egg  masses  may  be 

destroyed   when  found   by    painting  them 

with  creosote.     Sometimes  trees  are  banded 

to  prevent  the   insect  from  invading  them 

from  near-by  uncared-for  premises. 

The  Fall  Web  worm  ( Hijphantria  cimea  Dru.) 
Colonies  of  hairy  caterpillars  feed  in  com- 
pany on  the  foliage  of  orchard  or  forest 
trees,  building  a  web  around  the  terminal 
leaves.  As  the  green  leaves  within  their 
nest  are  devoured,  fresh  foliage  is  drawn  in 

and    the    nest   enlarged,   until    it    becomes    f.g.  44l.-Th.  Fall  Web- 
decidedly    conspicuous.     Several    different  worm.    Original. 


ACTIVE     WORMS    FEEDING     WITHIN     WEBBED    LEAVES    297 


webs  may  be  made  in  succession  by  the  same  colony.  The  caterpil- 
lars have  a  dark  body,  covered  with  long,  whitish  hairs.  The  work 
is  entirely  distinct  from  that  of  the  tent  caterpillar,  which  builds  its 
nest  in  the  forks  of  branches  and  does  not  include  any  foliage  in  it. 

When  full  grown,  the  cater- 
pillars disperse,  liide  away,  and 
spin  up  cocoons,  from  which 
the  adult  moths  emerge  the  fol- 
lowing summer.  In  the  South 
there  are  two  generations. 

Trees  may  be  spraj^ed  with 
arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green, 
and  the  caterpillars  thus  killed 
when  they  extend  their  webs 
over  new  and  poisoned  foliage. 
Or  the  nests  may  be  cut  off 
when  first  observed,  and  de- 
stroyed, along  with  the  cater- 
pillars in  them. 

The   Leaf   Grumpier 

(Mineola  indiginella  Zell.) 

In  winter  dark  little  twisted 
cases  of  silk  mixed  with  bits 
of  leaves  may  be  seen  attached  to  twigs  of  apple  trees.     From  these, 
brownish  red  caterpillars,  one  fourth  of  an  inch  long,  come  out  in 


Fig.  442.— Work  of  the  Leaf  Grumpier. 
Original. 


^4||||^ 


'^US.sirt* 


Fig.  443.  —  Larva  of  the  Leaf  Grum- 
pier. Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


Fig.  444.  —  Larval  cases  of  the  Leaf 
Grumpier  on  twig.     Original. 


298 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Fig.  445. — Adult  of  the  Leaf  Grumpier.   Enlarged 
and  natural  size.     Original. 


early  spring  and  attack  the  tender  foliage,  drawing  the  leaves  of  a 
cluster  more  or  less  together  with  silk.  Before  long  the  dried  bunches 
of  dead  leaves  are  conspicuous. 

The  adult  is  a  moth,  expanding  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch,  its 
wings  gray,  with  darker  and  lighter  markings.  Eggs  are  laid  in  mid- 
summer, and  the  young 
larvae  feed  for  a  time, 
later  moving  to  the 
twigs  where  they  con- 
struct their  winter 
shelter. 

Early,  prompt  spray- 
ing in  the  spring  with 
arsenate  of  lead  or 
Paris  green  will  kill  the 
caterpillars,  but  the 
treatment  must  be 
given  before  the  work  is  well  advanced.  If  orchard  trees  are  regu- 
larly sprayed,  they  will  seldom  suffer  damage  from  this  pest,  be- 
cause the  poison  adhering  to  the  foliage  will  kill  the  young  larvae  when 
they  begin  work  in  midsum- 
mer, before  they  retire  to 
their  winter  homes. 


The  Bud-moth  {Spilonota 
{Tmetocera)  ocellana  Schiff.) 

The  opening  buds  of 
apple,  pear,  and  sometimes 
cherry,  peach,  or  plum  are 
attacked  by  small  whitish 
caterpillars,  one  fourth  of 
an  inch  long  or  less,  with 
dark  brown  heads.  As  the 
young  leaves  expand,  the 
caterpillars  bind   them   to-    Fig.  446 


Work  of  the  Bud-moth.    Original. 


ACTIVE    WORMS    FEEDING     WITHIN    WEBBED    LEAVES    299 


Fig.  447.  —  Larva  of  the  Bud-moth. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.  Original. 


gether  with  silk,  feeding  inside,  so  that  small,  dead,  brown  clusters  are 

to  be  seen  here  and  there.     When  full  grown,  the  larvae  are  brownish, 

and  three  quarters  of  an  inch  long. 
The  caterpillars  change  to  pupse 

within  the  webbed  leaves,  and  later 

the  small  gray  and  brown  moths 

appear  and  lay  eggs  on  the  under- 
side of  leaves.      The  tiny  worms 

which  hatch  from  these  feed  for  a 

few  weeks    and    then   migrate   to 

twigs  and  make  silk  cases  in  which 

they  pass  the  winter. 

Spraying  with   arsenicals  is  effective  if  done  very  early  when  the 

buds  are  just  expanding, 
and  repeated  as  soon  as 
the  leaves  are  fairly  out- 
Regular  seasonal  spray- 
ings will  control  this  species 
through  poisoning  the 
larvse  when  they  first  hatch 
from  the  eggs  in  midsum- 
mer.    For  this  reason  they 

Fig.    448. -The    Bud-moth.       Enlarged    and       ^'^  ^«*  ^P*  *^  ^^   «^^^  ^^ 

natural  size.    Original.  well-cared-for  orchards. 


The  Blackhead  Cranberry  Worm  (Rhopobota  {Eudemis)  vacdniana 

Pack.) 

Small,  velvety  green  caterpillars,  with  shining  black  heads,  draw  to- 
gether the  tip  leaves  on  uprights  and  feed  within.  The  pest  is  com- 
monly known  as  the  "fire  worm  "  because  of  the  scorched  appearance 
of  a  badly  infested  bog.  There  are  two  broods  annually.  The  species 
over^vinters  as  an  egg  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the  leaf. 

Where  sufficient  water  is  available,  it  is  an  effective  plan  to  reflow 
for  two  or  three  days  when  the  worms  are  coming  down  out  of  the 
uprights  and  pupating.     If  this  is  not  feasible,  the  only  satisfactory 


300  PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 

remed}'-  is  to  apply  arsenicals  early  to  poison  the  worms.     The  second 
brood,  if  serious,  can  be  controlled  only  by  applying  arsenical  poisons. 


Fig.  449.  — The  Blackhead  Cran-  Fig.  450.— Adult  of  the  Blackhead  Cran- 
berry Worm.  Enlarged  and  natural  berry  Worm.  Enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original.  size.     Original. 

The  Yellowhead  Cranberry  Worm  {Peronea  (Acleris)  minuta  Rob.) 

The  larva  of  this  species  is  quite  similar  in  appearance  to  the  pre- 
ceding, but  has  a  yelloAV  head.  It  works  in  the  same  manner,  webbing 
up  the  tips  and  destroying  or  kilhng  the  foliage  within. 

The  winter  is  passed  as  an  adult  moth.  The  most  practical  means  of 
control  is  to  hold  the  water  in  the  spring  so  as  to  force  these  adults  to 


Fig.  451. — Adult  of  the  Yellowhead  Cranberry  Worm. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 

lay  their  eggs  elsewhere.  On  infested  bogs  reflowing  for  48  hours  will 
kill  the  worms.  There  are  three  broods  annually.  Spraying  or  dust- 
ing with  arsenical  poisons  is  effective,  if  done  early. 


SMALL     WORMS    FEEDING     WITHIN    WEBBED    LEAVES     301 

The  Grape  Plume  Moth  {Oxyptilus  periscelidadylus  Fitch) 

Small,  green  or  yellow  larvse,  half  an  inch  long  when  mature,  web 
together  the  younger  leaves  of  grapes  and  feed  on  the  foliage  within. 


Fig.  452.  —  Work  and  empty  pupal  skin  of  the  Grape 
Plume  Moth.     Original. 

They  are  seldom  numerous  enough  to  be  a  pest.     The  adult  is  a  delicate, 
buff-colored   moth,    with   narrow,   feathery   wings.     The   usual   and 


Fig.  453.  —  Larva  of  the  Grape 
Plume  Moth.  Slightly  enlarged. 
Original. 


Fig.  454.  —  The  Grape  Plume 
Moth.  Enlarged  to  twice  nat- 
uial  size.     Original. 


easiest  means  of  control  is  to  pick  off  and  destroy  the  webbed-up 
clusters  of  leaves. 


302 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


The   Oblique  Banded  Leaf-roller  {Archips  rosaceana  Harr.) 

Active,  light  green  or  rosy  caterpillars,  three  quarters  of  an  inch 
long,  with  a  darker  stripe  down  the  back,  roll  up  the  leaves,  fasten 
them  with  silk,  and  feed  within.     They  infest  apple  and  other  fruit 

trees,    raspberries,   roses,   and  straw- 
berries, and  often  are  destructive  to 
flowering  plants  in  greenhouses.     Pu- 
^^^^  pation  takes  place  within  the  folded 

1^^^  mBB^L  leaves.       The    adult    is    a    smooth, 

I^H^^        H^I^Im  brownish  moth.    See  page  188. 

<^^^K       ^^tBSm  Control  is    often    difficult,    but    a 

^l^^lk       ^^KBF  prompt,  thorough  use  of  Paris  green 

^^^^^         ^BB  or  arsenate  of  lead  will  check  the  pest. 


The  Fruit-tree  Leaf-roller 

{Archips  (Cacoecia)  argyrospila  Walk.) 


Fig.   455.  — Work   of  the  Fruit 
tree  Leaf-roller.     Original. 


The  young  leaves  and  fruit  of  or- 
chard trees  and  bush  fruits  are  at- 
tacked by  yellowish  larvae,  which  spin 
threads  wherever  they  go,  drawing  leaves  somewhat  together.  The 
full-grown  worm  is  about  an  inch  long,  has 
a  black  head,  and  has  a  few  short  hairs 
scattered  over  its  body.  It  is  active  when 
disturbed. 

The  pest  appears  very  early  in  spring, 
when  the  buds  are  first  unfolding.  It  hatches 
from  eggs  laid  in  flat  masses  on  the  bark. 
There  is  one  generation  annually. 

Early   spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  or 
Paris  green  at  the  time  that  the  buds  are 
opening,  and  again  when  the  blossoms  have     ^'^.Jttr^^^taf-^illt! 
fallen,  is  the  means  of  control.  Original. 


ACTIVE     WORMS    FEEDING     WITHIN    FOLDED    LEAVES    303 


The  Grape  Leai-folder  (Desmia  funeralis  Hhn.) 

Leaves  of  grape  are  folded  with  their  upper  surfaces  together  by  a 
small,  active,  greenish  worm,  which  feeds  inside.  The  worm  is  an 
inch  long  when  full  grown, 
has  a  brown  head,  and  a 
brown  spot  on  each  side  of 
the  first  two  segments. 
Transformation  takes  place 
within  the  folded  leaf. 

The  adult  is  a  small  moth 
with  black  wings  spotted 
with  white.  There  are  two 
broods  in  the  North,  three 
in  the  South.  Winter  is 
passed  as  a  pupa  in  the 
folded  leaf  on  the  ground. 

To  control,  destroy  or 
plow  under  the  fallen  leaves. 
Or  spray  very  early  in  sum- 
mer with  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  so  as  to  poison  the  first  lot  of 

caterpillars  when  they  have  just 
hatched  and  before  they  fold  the 
leaves. 

The  Strawberry  Leaf-roller 

(Ancylis  comptana  Frohl.) 

A  tiny  worm,  one  third  of  an 
inch  long,  brown  or  often  green  in 
color,  folds  the  leaves  of  straw- 
berry, or  sometimes  blackberry  or 
raspberry,  and  feeds  within.  As  the  larva  eats  off  the  inclosed  leaf 
surface  the  leaf  turns  brown,  and  when  the  pests  are  numerous,  whole 
beds  of  plants  will  look  as  if  scorched. 

Two  broods  occur  in  the  North  and  three  in  the  South.     The  later 


Fig.  457.  — Work  and  pupa  of  the  Grape  Leaf- 
folder.     Slightly  enlarged.     Original. 


Fig.  458.  —  Adult  of  the  Grape  Leaf 
folder.     Original. 


304 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


broods  are  found  on  blackberry  or  raspberry,  rather  than  strawberry. 

On  blackberry  leaves  the  work  is  similar  to  that  on  strawberry  leaves, 

but  on  raspberry 
the  larvae  tend 
rather  to  web  up  a 
terminal  cluster  of 
leaves.  Hiberna- 
tion takes  place  as 
larva  or  pupa 
witliin  a  folded 
leaf.  The  adult 
is  a  tiny  brownish 


Fig.  459. 


Work  of  the  Strawberry  Leaf-roller. 
Original. 


Fig.  460.  — Larva  of 
the  Strawberry 
Leaf-roller.  En- 
larged and  natural 
size.     Original. 

moth,  expanding  a 
little  less  than  half 
an  inch. 

Since  the  larvae 
feed  for  a  short 
time  exposed  on 
the  upper  surface 
of  the  leaf  before 
drawing  it  together,  an  early  application  of  Paris  green  or  arsenate 
of  lead  will  check  the  pest.  This  application  must  be  made  early, 
and  usually  must  be  repeated,  because  new  leaves  are  being  put  out 


Fig.   46L  —  Adult   of   the    Strawberry   Leaf-roller. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 


ACTIVE     WORMS    FEEDING     WITHIN    FOLDED    LEAVES      305 

by  the  plant.  In  the  South  it  has  been  found  feasible  to  cut  over 
strawberry  beds  in  midsummer  and  burn  them.  It  is  said  that  the 
plants  are  not  permanently  injured  by  this  treatment. 

The  Apple  Leaf-sewer  {Ancylis  nubeculana  Clem.) 


Fig.  462.  —  Work  of  the  Apple  Leaf-sewer.     Original. 


The  leaves  of  apple  or  other  fruit  trees  arc  folded  along  the  midrib, 
so  that  their  upper  surfaces  are  lorou^ht  together,  and  a  small,  active, 

greenish    caterpil- 


lar, not  more  than 
a  half  inch  long, 
feeds  within.  The 
adult  is  a  brown 
and  white  moth. 
Winter    is   passed 


Fig.  463.  — Larva  of  the  Apple  Loaf- 
sewer.  Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 

within  the  folded   leaves  on  the 
ground. 

If  the  pest  is  numerous,  rake 
up  and  burn  the  leaves  in  win- 
ter. Early  applications  of  arse- 
nate of  lead   or   Paris  green,  as 


Fig.  464.— Adult  of  the  Apple  Leaf- 
sewer.  Enlarged  to  twice  natural 
size.     Original. 


306 


FESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


called  for  in  regular  orchard  spraying,  will  poison  the  larvae  before 
they  fold  the  leaf. 

The  Lesser  Apple  Leaf-folder  (Peronea  minuta  Rob.) 

A  greenish  yellow,  naked  worm,  a  half  inch  long,  with  a  yellow  head, 
folds  together  the  tender  terminal  leaves  on  apple  trees,  especially  in 

nurseries.  When  attacking  larger 
leaves,  it  often  bends  over  and 
fastens  only  a  small  part  of  the  leaf 
near  the  margin.  There  are  three 
broods  annually,  the  larvae  being 
at  work  first  soon  after  the  leaves 
are  well  out,  again  in  June,  and 
again  in  August.     See  page  300. 

To  control,  apply  arsenate  of  lead 
in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  leaves 
are  expanded,  and  repeat  for  the 
later  broods. 


Fig.  465.  —  Adult  of  the  Cigar  Case- 
bearer.  Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
OriginaL 


The  Cigar  Case-bearer 

{Coleophora  fletcherella  Fern.) 
Areas  in  the  leaves   of   apple, 
pear,   or    quince   are   mined    and 
turned  down  by  a  very  small  cater- 


pillar that  carries  with  him  a  little 
cyUndrical  case  made  of  a  tiny  sec- 
tion of  a  leaf,  the  hind  part  of  his 
body  protected  by  this  case.  The 
caterpillar  completes  its  growth  in 
June,  migrates  to  a  branch,  to  which 
it  attaches  its  case,  and  transforms. 
The  adult  moths  fly  in  July  and 
lay  eggs  on  the  leaves.  The  young 
caterpillar  first  mines  in  the  leaf  tis- 
sue, and  later  constructs  a  very  small. 


Fig.  466.  —  Larval  cases  of  the 
Cigar  Case-bearer.    Original. 


CASE-BEARERS    FEEDING    ON    THE    LEAVES 


307 


short  case,  which  it  carries  to  a  twig  and  in  which  it  spends  the 
winter. 

The  remedy  is  an  appHcation  of  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green  as 
soon  as  the  caterpillars  are  seen  feeding. 


Fig.  467.  —  Larval  cases  of  the  Pistol  Case-bearer.     Enlarged.     Original. 

The  Pistol  Case-bearer  (Coleophora  malivorella  Riley)  has  a  similar 
life  history  and  does  about  the  same  injury.  It  is  distinguished  from 
the  above  by  the  shape  of  the  larval  case,  wliich  in  this  species  is 
slender,  somewhat  tapering,  and  distinctly 
curved. 

The  Bag-worm 

(  Thyridopteryx  ephemeroeformis  Steph.) 

This  curious  larva  makes  a  bag  out  of 
silk  and  pieces  of  leaves  as  a  protection 
to  its  body.     The  female  is  wingless  and 

never    leaves 

the  bag.     The 

male  is  a  small, 

clear-winged 

moth.        Eggs 

are     deposited 

by  the  female 

within  the  bag,  and  remain  there  until  the 

following  spring. 

Removal  of  the  bags  in  winter  will  put  a 


Fig.  468.  —  Larval  case  of  the 
Bag-worm.     Original. 


Fig.  469.  — Adult  male  of 
the  Bag-worm.  Slightly 
enlarged.    Original. 


308 


FESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


stop  to  the  insect.     Or  the  foliage  may  be  sprayed  with  arsenate  of 
lead  as  soon  as  the  leaves  are  out. 

The  Pear-leaf  Blister-mite  (Eriophyes  pyri  Pgst.) 

The  leaves  of  apple  and  pear  often  are  infested  with  a  species  of  mite 
that  burrows  into  the  tissues  of  the  leaf,  causing  a  characteristic  dis- 
coloration and  swelling.     Spots  show  in  the  upper  leaf  surface,  at 


Fig.  470.  — Work  of  the  Pear-leaf  Blister-mite.     Original. 


first  reddish,  but  later  turning  brown.  At  each  spot  the  leaf  is  some- 
what thickened  and  its  surface  is  slightly  raised.  Sometimes  the  fruit 
also  is  attacked  and  distorted. 

The  mites  themselves  are  very  small.  They  hibernate  under  bud 
scales,  migrating  to  the  leaves  as  soon  as  the  latter  unfold,  entering 
the  tissue  from  the  under  side  and  feeding  within.  From  time  to  time 
indi\dduals  come  out  and  move  to  new  places,  starting  additional 
colonies  and  causing  a  continual  increase  in  the  number  of  spots.  In 
late  summer  they  move  back  again  to  the  twigs,  hiding  away  for 
winter. 


BLISTER-MITES    AND    LEAF-MINERS 


309 


Fig.  471.  —  Apples  deformed  by  the  Pear-leaf  Blister-mite.     Original. 

Treatment  consists  in  spraying  in  winter  with  lime-sulphur  solution, 
so  as  to  kill  the  hibernating  mites.  In  summer  they  cannot  be  reached 
by  any  spray  material  because  of  their  feeding  habits. 

The   Apple    Leaf  Trumpet   Miner 
(Tischeria  malifoliella  Clem.) 

Characteristic,  trumpet-shaped 
mines  in  the  upper  surface  of 
apple  leaves  indicate  the  presence 
of  this  insect.  Usually  the  mines 
are  not  more  than  a  half  inch 
long,  beginning  with  a  quite  nar- 
row brown  or  dead  area  and  en- 
larging rapidly  to  their  maximum 
width. 

There  are  from  two  to  four 
generations  annually.  The  winter 
is  passed  by  the  full-grown  larva 
in  its  mine  in  fallen  leaves.  The 
tiny  adult  moths  emerge  in  the  spring  with  the  expanding  of  apple 
foliage. 


Fig.  472.  —  Work  of  the  Apple  Leaf 
Trumpet  Miner.     Original. 


310 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Late  fall  or  early  spring  plowing  to  bury  fallen  leaves  is  the  simplest 
means  of  control.  ■        


Fig.  473.  —  Larva  of  the  Apple  Leaf 
Trumpet  Miner.  Enlarged  and  nat- 
ural size.     Original. 


Fig.  474.  —Adult  of  the  Apple  Leaf 
Trumpet  Miner.  Enlarged  and 
natural  size.    Original. 


The  Blackberry  Leaf-miner  {Metallus  ruhi  Forbes) 
The  leaves  of  blackberry  sometimes  show  numerous  blotch  mines, 
caused  by  a  small  larva  working  within  the  leaf  tissue.  Occasionally 
the  foliage  is  severely  injured.  There  are  two  to  four  broods  in  a 
summer,  the  later  ones  doing  the  most  damage.  The  adult  is  a  small 
sawfiy. 

No  direct  means  of  control  are  known  except  to  remove  infested 
leaves  early  in  the  season. 

The  Resplendent  Shield-bearer  (Coptodisca  splendoriferella  Clem.) 


#     *^4^ 


Fig.  475.  —  Cocoons  of  the  Resplen- 
dent Shield-bearer  on  a  piece  of 
bark.     Original. 


Fig.  476.  —  The  Resplendent  Shield- 
bearer.  Apple  leaf  showing  mines 
and  sections  removed. 


Occasionally  apple,  plum,  or   quince  show  the  characteristic  work 
of  this  insect.     Round,  transparent  mines  are  made  in  the  leaves,  and 


SMALL,    SUCKING    BUGS    INJURING    THE    LEAVES       311 


after  a  time  the  larva  feeding  within  cuts  out  the  infested  area  bodily 
and  carries  it  to  a  twig  or  branch,  where  it  uses  it  as  a  shelter  until  the 
following  spring.     There  is  one  brood  annually. 

A  winter  spra3nng  with  lime-sulphur  solution  or  other  strong  con- 
tact insecticide  will  kill  the  overwintering  form. 

The  Four-lined  Leaf-bug  {Poecilocapsus  lineatus  Fab.) 

A  sucking  bug,  about  half  an  inch  long,  with  four  short  black  stripes 
on  its  back,  sometimes  injures  the  leaves  of  currants,  gooseberries,  or 
other  plants  by  its  feeding  punc- 
tures. Spots  where  the  bug  has 
been  feeding  turn  brow^n,  and 
sink  a  little  below  the  level  of 
the  leaf.  In  time  the  entire 
foliage,  or  that  toward  the  tips 
of  the  twigs,  may  be  killed. 

In  early  spring,  when  first 
hatched,  the  bugs  are  very 
small,  bright  red,  and  have  no 
wings.  They  feed  on  only  the 
tenderest  terminal  foliage.  They  become  full  grown  in  June,  and 
the  female  lays  eggs  in  slits  cut  in  the  stems  of  the  food  plants.  In 
the  North  there  is  one  generation,  hibernation  taking  place  in  the 
egg  stage;  in  the  Southern  states  there  may  be  a  second  brood. 

The  young  nymphs  may  be  killed  with  a  contact  insecticide,  such 
as  10  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion.  The  adults  are  best  destroyed  by 
brushing  them  from  the  plants  into  pans  containing  a  film  of  kerosene. 
It  is  difficult  or  impossible  to  control  the  adults  by  spraying. 

The  Grape  Leaf-hopper  ( Typhloctjba  comes  Say) 
Tiny,  active  insects  suck  the   juices   from   grape   leaves,  making 

numerous  very  small  white  spots.     If  attack  is   severe,  the   leaves 

shrivel,  turn  brown,  and  die. 

The  adult  insect  is  one  tenth  of  an  inch  long,  light  yellowish  in 

color,  with  green  markings    on  its  wings.     It  has  strong  legs,  jumps 


Fig.    477.  —  The    Four-lined    Leaf -bug. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 


312 


FESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


quickly,  and  flies  readily.     Attack  by  it  is  most  noticeable  in  Sep- 
tember.    The  njTiiphs  look  like  the  adults,  except  that  they  are  smaller 


Fig.  478.  —  Work  of  the  Grape  Leaf -hopper.     Original. 


and  have  no  wings.     Both  adults  and  nymphs  feed  on  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  leaves. 

The  adults  leave  the  grape  in  October  and  migrate  to  neighboring 
vegetation.  They  overwinter  in  dead,  fallen  leaves,  clumps  of  grass,  or 
any  similar   protection.      In  spring  they  feed  first  on  weeds,  then 

migrate  back  to  the  grapes 
and  feed  on  the  young  shoots 
and  leaves.  Eggs  are  laid  in 
the  tissue  of  the  grape  leaves 
in  June  and  July.  Nymphs 
emerge  shortly,  and  are  numer- 
ous in  July  and  August.  The 
nymphs  do  not  hop  or  fly, 
merely  running  around  over 
the  leaves.  There  is  one  gen- 
eration each  year. 
Cleaning  up  rubbish  in  the  vineyard  is  only  of  nominal  value,  since 
the  adults  migrate  in  October  to  neighboring  hiding  places.     The  best 


Fig.  479.  — The  Grape  Leaf-hopper.    En- 
larged and  natural  size.     Original. 


SMALL,    ACTIVE    INSECTS    INJURING     THE    FOLIAGE      313 


Fig.    480.  —  Work   of  the    Apple    Leaf- 
hopper.     Original. 


means  of  control  consists  in  spraying  thoroughly  with  tobacco  extract 
as  soon  as  nymphs  appear.  The  spray  must  be  directed  to  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves  and  must  be  applied  before  the  insect  has  reached  the 
winged  stage,  in  order  to  be 
effective. 

The  Apple  Leaf-hopper 
{Etnpoasca  mali  Le  B.) 
A  very  small  whitish  insect, 
winged  and  active  in  its  ma- 
ture stage,  swarms  on  the 
leaves  of  apple  trees  and  some- 
times on  other  foliage,  suck- 
ing the  juice  of  the  leaf.  The 
feeding  punctures  cause  tiny 
white  spots,  which  in  time  be- 
come numerous  enough  to  give  the  foliage  a  distinctly  bleached  ap- 
pearance. On  young  trees,  and  especially  on  nursery  stock,  the  at- 
tack usually  results  in  a  curling  of  the 
tender  leaves,  somewhat  resembling 
the  work  of  plant  lice.  The  insect 
winters  partly  as  adults  in  rubbish, 
partly  as  eggs  in  the  bark  of  the 
trees.  There  are  several  generations 
in  the  course  of  the  summer. 

In  orchard  trees  spraying  with  a 
contact   insecticide,  such  as  tobacco 
extract,  \\\\\   kill  many  of  the  leaf- 
hoppers   if   the   material   is   applied 
early  in  the   season,  before  the  winged  stage  appears.     On  nursery 
stock  a  desirable  preventive  measure  is  dipping  in  soap  solution. 

The  Pear  Psylla  (P.s/y/^a  T^T/ncoZa  Foerst.) 
The  pear  psylla  is  a  minute,  sucking  insect,  wingless  in  its  immature 
stages,  but  active  and  winged  as  an  adult.     It  sucks  the  juices  of  the 


Fig.  481. — The  Apple  Leaf-hopper 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.  Orig- 
inal. 


314 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


buds  and  newly  forming  leaves.  When  the  pests  are  numerous,  the 
leaves  are  killed,  and  often  are  blackened  through  the  growth  of  a  fungus 
on  the  sticky  honeydew  secreted  by  the  insect. 


Fig.  482.  —  Work  of  the  Pear  Psylla.     Original. 

The  adult  is  very  small,  dark  in  color,  its  body  showing  characteristic 
markings.     It  has  four  membranous  wings.     Seen  through  a  hand  lens 

it  looks  hke  a  tiny  cicada,  or  ''lo- 
cust." 

The  adults  hide  away  for  the 
winter  in  crevices  of  the  bark,  and 
emerge  and  lay  eggs  at  the  time 
that  the  buds  are  swelling.  The 
young  are  numerous  when  the 
blossoms  are  falling.  There  are 
Fig.  483. -Adult  Pear  Psylia.  En-  four  or  five  broods  in  a  season, 
larged  and  natural  size.   Original.  The  pest  may  be   controlled  by 


PLANT-LICE    INJURING    LEAVES    AND    SHOOTS       315 

spraying  with  'a  contact  insecticide,  such  as  tobacco  extract,  to  kill 
the  hibernating  adults.  To  do  this  the  bark  should  be  scraped,  and 
the  spray  applied  very  early  in  the  spring.  A  second  method  consists 
in  spraying  with  winter-strength  lime  sulphur  to  kill  the  eggs,  ap- 
plying the  material  when  the  buds  are  swelling.  Finally,  a  contact 
insecticide  may  be  used  to  kill  the  nymphs,  applying  the  spray  when 
the  blossoms  are  falling.  Any  one  of  these  treatments,  thoroughly 
applied,  is  effective. 


Plant  Lice  on  Apple  Foliage 

Three  species  of  small,  soft-bodied,  sucking  lice  are  commonly  found 
infesting  the  foliage  of  apples  :  the  Apple  Aphis  {Aphis  pomi  DeG.) ; 
the  Rosy  Apple  Aphis 
{Aphis  sorbi  Kahl.) ;  and 
the  European  Grain  Apliis 
{Siphocoryne  avence  Fab.). 
In  addition  to  these  the 
Clover  Aphis  {Aphis 
hakeri  Cowen)  is  some- 
times found  on  apple  late 
in  the  fall  and  in  the  early 
spring. 

Infestation  may  first  be 
observed  on  the  j'oung 
shoots  which  are  found 
completely  covered  with 
very  small,  green  or  pink- 
ish lice.  About  this  time, 
also,  it  maj'  be  noticed 
that  many  of  the  lice  are 
clustering  on  the  under 
sides  of  leaves  near  the 
ends   of    shoots,    causing 

them  tc  curl.  p^^    484.  — Work  of  the  Apple  Aphis  on  ter- 

Again  the  first  evidence  minal  shoot.    Original. 


316 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Fig.  485.  —  Adults  of  the  Apple  Aphis  on  twig, 
larged  and  natural  size.    Original. 


En- 


of  injur}^  may  be  observed  on  the  expanding  buds,  on  which  clusters 
of  the  hce  are  found,  their  work  resulting  in  deforming  the  young 

leaves  or  the  blos- 
soms, or  in  consid- 
erable injury  to  the 
young  fruit. 

The  life  histories 
of  these  various 
species  are  not  the 
same,  in  spite  of 
the  similarity  in 
their  superficial  ap- 
pearance and  their 
initial  work. 

The  Apple  Aphis 
{Aphis  ponii) 
passes  the  entire  season  on  the  apple.  In  the  winter  it  is  in  the  egg 
stage,  large  numbers  of  the  small,  black  shining  eggs  often  being 
found  on  terminal 
twigs.  The  first 
generations  in 
summer  are  wing- 
less, but  in  later 
generations 
winged  individuals 
develop.  This 
species  is  charac- 
teristically bright 
green  in  color, 
with  black,  rather 
slender  honey 
tubes.  It  is  one 
twelfth  of  an  inch 

long.     Usually  the  lice  observed  on  tender  shoots  and  beneath  curled 
terminal  leaves  belong  to  this  species  or  to  the  following. 


Fig.  486.  —  Eggs  of  the  Apple  Aphis  on  twig, 
and  natural  size.     Original. 


Enlarged 


PLANT-LICE    INJURING     THE    FOLIAGE 


317 


The  Rosy  Apple  Aphis  (Aphis  sorbi)  hatches  from  eggs  that  have 
remained  on  the  apple  throughout  winter,  but  with  the  third  generation 
migrates  to  other  food 
plants.  This  is  a  slightly 
larger  species.  The  wing- 
less female  is  one  tenth  of 
an  inch  long,  bluish  in 
color,  and  has  yellow  honey 
tubes  tipped  with  black. 
The  winged  female  has  a 
black  thorax  and  a  red  ab- 
domen. 

The  European  Grain 
Aphis  (Siphocoryne  avence) 
is  found  in  summer  on 
small  grains,  but  for  the 
most  part  migrates  in  the 
fall  to  apple,  pear,  or  re- 
lated trees,  where  its  win- 
ter  eggs   are   laid.      It   develops  in  the   spring   like   the   preceding 

species,  leaving  the  fruit 
trees  with  the  coming  of  the 
third  generation.  On  apple 
trees  it  is  commonly  first 
observed  clustered  on  the  ex- 
panding buds. 

The  Clover  Aphis  {Aphis 
hakeri)  rears  its  summer  gen- 
erations on  clover  or  alfalfa. 
These  lice  are  light  yellow  or 
pink.  Usually  they  leave 
the  clover  in  the  fall,  passing 
through  a  winter  egg  stage 
on  apple  or  pear.  The  first 
generation    from  these   eggs 


Fig.  487.  — Adults  of  the  Apple  Aphis  clus- 
tered along  veins  of  leaf.  Enlarged.  Orig- 
inal. 


Fig. 


488.  — Work  of  Aphi. 
Original. 


young  fruit. 


318 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


in  the  spring  are  dark  green  or  red,  and  have  honey  tubes  yellow 
throughout. 

Ants  are  apt  to  be  found  in  attendance  on  any  of  these  aphids.  They 
come  to  secure  the  substance  that  the  lice  excrete,  commonly  called 
"  honeydew." 

Control  of  these  insects  is  best  achieved  by  prompt  application 
of  a  contact  insecticide  as  soon  as  the  lice  are  first  seen.  They  are 
readily  killed  by  spraying  with  tobacco  decoction,  or  7  per  cent  kero- 
sene   emulsion,  taking   pains  to  do  a  thorough  job.     The  tobacco 

extract  will  spread 
more  readily  if  soap 
is  dissolved  in  it. 

The  Cherry  Aphis 

{Mijzus  cerasi  Fab.) 

Injury  by  this  plant 
louse  is  usually  no- 
ticed soon  after  the 
leaves  have  unfolded 
in  the  spring.  It  will 
be  found  clustered 
thickly  on  tender 
shoots  or  leaves.  It 
is  a  shining  black 
aphid,  and  if  exam- 
ined under  a  lens  will 
be  found  to  have 
long,  slender  honey 
tubes.  The  summer 
generations  are  wing- 
less, but  in  the  fall 
winged  individuals  are  produced.  So  far  as  known,  this  species  is 
never  found  on  any  other  host  than  cherry.  It  passes  the  winter  in 
the  egg  stage. 


Fig.  489.  —  The  Cherry  Aphis.     Original. 


PLANT-LICE    INJURING     THE    FOLIAGE 


319 


To  control,  spray  with  tobacco  extract  or  with  kerosene  emulsion 
as  soon  as  the  lice  are  first  seen. 


The  Currant  Aphis  {Myzus  ribis  Linn.) 

Like  most  other  plant  lice  this  species  causes  a  curling  up  of  the  foliage 
infested.     Both  currants  and  gooseberries  are  subject  to  attack.     The 
leaves  curl  tightly,   and  their  upper 
surfaces  show  chstinct  raised  areas  or 
blisters,  between  the  veins. 

The  lice  are  one  twelfth  of  an  inch 
long,  mottled  green,  and  have  red 
eyes.  The  pest  passes  the  winter  as 
shining  eggs,  attached  to  the  woody 
parts  of  the  plants. 

Contact  sprays,  such  as  tobacco  ex- 
tract or  kerosene  emulsion,  will  kill 


them,  but  should  be  appUed   before 
the  leaves  are  badly  curled. 


Fig.  490.  —Work  of  the  Currant 
Aphis.     Original. 


The  Grapevine  Aphis  {Macrosiphum  viticola  Thos.) 

Dusky,  soft-bodied  plant  lice  with  greenish  legs  cluster  on  the  tender 
leaves  and  young  shoots  of  grapevines.  They  appear  in  the  early  part 
of  the  season,  and  usually  are  not  noticed  after  growth  is  well  established 


Fig. 


491.  —  Work  of  the  Grapevine 
Aphis.     Original. 


Fig.     492.  —  The   Grapevine    Aphis. 
Greatly  enlarged.     Original. 


320 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


in  summer.     Spraying  with  tobacco  extract  or  kerosene  emulsion  will 
kill  them. 


Plant  Lice  on  Peach  Foliage 

Two  species  of  plant  Hce  are  common  on  peach  fohage.  They 
are  especially  likely  to  do  notable  injury  in  the  spring,  clustering 
on  the  tender  shoots,  curling  the  leaves,  and  sometimes  dwarfing  and 
distorting  the  forming  fruit. 

The  Green  Peach  Aphis  (Myzus  persicce  Sulz.)  hatches  in  early  spring 
from  eggs  laid  in  crevices  of  the  bark.  The  first  lice  are  pink,  but  the 
next  generation  are  light  green,  often  with  darker  green  stripes  across 
the  abdomen.     These  in  turn  give  birth  to  a  third  brood,  many  of 

which,  unlike  the  preceding,  have  wings. 
The  latter  fly  to  new  food  plants,  and 
for  the  next  two  or  three  months  breed 
on  various  garden  crops,  such  as  to- 
matoes, spinach,  cabbage,  and  many 
others.  In  the  fall  another  winged  gen- 
eration returns  to  the  peach  or  other  re- 
lated trees,  and  the  winter  eggs  are  laid. 
The  measures  of  control  are  spraying 
with  7  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion  or 
with  tobacco  extract  when  the  lice  are 
first  observed. 

The  Black  Peach  Aphis  (Aphis  persicw- 
niger  Er.  Sm.)  lives  the  year  round  on 
peach.  It  differs  from  the  preceding  in 
the  fact  that  colonies  are  maintained  on 
the  roots  both  summer  and  winter,  as 
well  as  the  colonies  on  the  leaves  and 
twigs  in  summer.  The  full-grown  aphid 
is  shining  black.  Control  of  this  species 
must  be  directed  toward  the  root-inhabiting  forms  as  well  as  those 
above  ground.  In  fact  the  former  are  often  much  the  more  abun- 
dant, while  few  or  none  may  be  seen  on  the  foliage.     See  page  229. 


Fig  493 
Aphis. 
inal. 


—  The  Black 
Aerial  form. 


PLANT-LICE    INJURING     THE    FOLIAGE  321 

The  remedy  for  those  below  ground  is  to  draw  away  the  earth  from 
around  the  base  of  the  tree,  in  a  circle  4  or  5  feet  in  diameter,  and 
apply  2  to  4  pounds  of  tobacco  dust.  The  lice  on  the  foliage  are  best 
treated  with  a  spray  of  tobacco  extract,  or  7  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion. 

Plant  Lice  on  Plum  Foliage 

Three  species  of  plant  lice  are  more  or  less  common  on  the  leaves  and 
tender  shoots  of  plums,  especially  in  the  spring.  They  tend  to  collect 
in  clusters,  the  leaves  are  more  or  less  distorted  and  curled  by  their 
attack,  and  the  flowers  and  fruit  may  be  badly  injured.  After  two  or 
three  generations  they  leave  the  plum  and  fly  to  other  hosts. 

The  Brown  Plum  Aphis  {Aphis  setarice.  Thos.)  spends  the  summer 
on  various  grasses.  It  is  dark  in  color  and  has  white-marked  legs  and 
antennae. 

The  Mealy  Plum  Aphis  {Hyalopterus  arundinis  Fab.)  is  covered 
with  a  bluish  white  powder.  The  back  of  the  body  bears  three  darker 
obscure  stripes,  and  the  shape  of  the  body  is  rather  elongated.  The 
honey  tubes  are  short  and  rather  thick.  In  summer  the  lice  are  found 
on  grasses. 

The  Hop  Aphis  {Phorodon  humidi  Schr.)  flies  to  hop- vines  in 
early  summer,  and  is  a  pest  rather  on  the  latter  than  on  the  plum. 

The  treatment  is  a  thorough  spraying  with  tobacco  extract  or  7  per 
cent  kerosene  emulsion  just  as  soon  as  the  lice  are  first  observed.  It 
is  important  to  apply  the  spray  promptly,  before  the  leaves  are  badly 
curled. 

The  Clover  Mite  {Bryohia  pratensis  Garm.) 

This  tiny,  8-legged  mite  swarms  over  the  foliage  of  clover  in  some 
seasons.  In  the  West  it  feeds  also  on  the  leaves  of  various  fruit 
trees,  sucking  their  juices.  The  leaves  attacked  lose  their  green  color 
and  grow  yellow  and  sickly.  The  mites  survive  the  winter  for  the 
most  part  in  the  egg  stage  on  the  bark  of  fruit  trees.     See  page  208. 

In  smnmer  trees  should  be  sprayed  with  sulphur,  10  pounds  to  50 
gallons  of  water,  adding  soap  so  that  the  sulphur  will  not  float  on  top 
of  the  water,  and  keeping  the  mixture  well  stirred.     Spraying  with 

Y 


322  PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 

lime-sulphur  solution  in  early  spring,  just  as  the  buds  are  starting,  is 
also  an  effectual  treatment,  resulting  in  killing  the  eggs.  Use  the  mate- 
rial at  the  same  strength  as  for  San  Jose  scale. 

Red  Spider  on  Fruit  Tree  Foliage  {Tetranychus  bimaculatus  Harvey) 

Another  mite  attacking  the  foliage  of  fruit  trees,  and  sucking  the 
juices,  is  the  common  red  spider  so  often  troublesome  in  greenhouses. 
It  hibernates  in  the  soil  near  the  trees.  When  feeding  on  fruit  tree 
foliage,  this  mite  usually  is  green  in  color.  It  has  two  dark  spots  on 
the  abdomen.  It  spins  a  very  thin  web  on  the  under  leaf  surface, 
and  feeds  beneath.  This  habit  will  readily  distinguish  it  from  the 
clover  mite  just  described.     See  page  207. 

Spraying  with  sulphur,  10  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water,  is  an 
effective  treatment.  Add  soap  to  make  the  sulphur  mix  with  the 
water,  and  keep  the  mixture  well  stirred.  Screen  the  sulphur  to 
remove  lumps  before  adding  to  the  water. 

The  Rose-chafer  {Macrodactylus  subspinosus  Fab.) 

Hordes  of  long-legged,  sprawling  beetles  attack  the  blossoms  of 
grapes,  ripening  fruit,  such  as  cherries,  and  the  blossoms  of  flowers. 


Fig.  494. — The  Rose-chafer.     Adults  and  work  on  cherries.     Original. 

The  body  of  the  beetle  is  a  little  over  one  third  of  an  inch  long,  rather 
slender  and  cyUndrical,  and  dull  greenish  or  golden  yellowish  in  color. 


BEETLES    ATTACKING    BLOSSOM    AND    FRUIT 


323 


Fig.  495.  — The  Rose-chafer.      En- 
larged and  natural  size.  Original. 


Because  of  its  long  legs  the  insect  looks  larger  than  it  is.  In  habits 
it  is  sluggish.  Holes  are  eaten  in  fruit,  and  the  sides  of  unopened 
grape  blossoms  are  eaten  out  so  as 
to  get  at  the  stamens  and  pollen 
within.  In  flowers  the  beetles  at- 
tack especially  the  central  parts. 

The  insect  breeds  in  sandy  ground. 
The  larva  is  a  small,  whitish  grub, 
and  feeds  on  grass  roots.  In  the 
fall  it  goes  down  below  frost  line, 
returning  in  spring  and  transform- 
ing. The  adults  come  out  in  June. 
Eggs  are  laid  in  the  ground,  \  to  4  inches  below  the  surface.  Egg- 
laying  continues  over  a  considerable  period.  There  is  one  generation 
each  year. 

Direct   control   is  possible  by  spraying  thoroughly  with  arsenate 

of  lead,  5  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water, 
to  which  should  be  added  1  gallon 
of  molasses.  Without  the  molasses 
the  spray  is  not  so  effective,  as  the 
beetles  will  avoid  the  parts  of  the  plant 
that  are  coated  with  poison  and  seek 
out  places  where  none  of  the  spray  has 
lodged.  Spray  first  when  the  beetles 
are  due,  and  again  in  one  week. 

Hand  picking   is   feasible   in   flower 
Fig.  496^- Larva  of  tho  Rose-  .j^^^g      If  possible,  break  up  the  ad- 

chafer.     Original.  " 

jacent    breeding    grounds,     especially 

sandy  fields  in  sod  or  weeds.     The  insect  does  not  breed  in  ground 
kept  in  clean  cultivation. 


The  Indian  Euphoria  {Euphoria  inda  Linn.) 

Ripening  peaches  and  pears  sometimes  are  eaten  into  by  brownish, 
heavy-bodied  beetles,  about  half  an  inch  long,  their  wing  covers  marked 
with  irregular  darker  patterns.     They  are  slow  moving  and  not  easily 


524 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Fig.  497.  —  The  Indian  Euphoria. 
Adults  at  work  on  peach.  Orig- 
inal. 

tracted  to  a  heap  of  decaying 
fruit. 

The  Green  June  Beetle 

{Allorhina  nitida  Linn.) 

The  feeding  habits  of  this 

beetle  are  similar  to  those  of 

the   Indian  Euphoria.     Ripe 

fruits,      especially      peaches, 


disturbed.  The  species  is 
two  brooded,  and  it  is  the 
adults  of  the  second  brood 
that  are  found  on  the  fruit. 
The  larvse  are  thick-bodied 
grubs,  and  live  on  decaying 
vegetable  matter. 

When  the  adults  are  nu- 
merous enough  to  be  trouble- 
some, fruit  should  be  picked 
a  little  before  it  is  quite  ripe, 
or    the  beetles  may  be  at- 


FiG.  498. 


-The  Indian  Euphoria, 
enlarged.     Original. 


Adult 


pears   plums,  or  occasionally  small  fruits,   are   attacked   and    their 

substance  eaten  out.  The  beetle 
is  a  handsome  fellow,  its  upper  sur- 
face a  velvety  green,  bordered  with 
•brown.  The  larva  looks  much  like 
a  common  white  grub,  and  feeds  on 
decaying  vegetable  matter. 

The  means    of    control    of    the 

■E^      Ann      rru    r-         i        t>    x,        adults  is  tlic  samc  as  that  recom- 
FiG.  499.  —  The  Green  June  Beetle. 

SHghtly  enlarged.    Original.  mended  for  the  Indian  Euphoria. 


CONSPICUOUS     WORMS    FEEDING    ON    THE    FRUIT      325 


The  Green  Fruit  Worm  {Xylina  antennata  Walk.) 

Occasionally  the  young  fruits  of  apple,  pear,  or  strawberry  are  eaten 
into  by  light-colored  naked  caterpillars,  faintly  striped  with  yellow. 
Usually  the  worms  eat  shallow,  irregular 
holes  in  the  sides  of  the  fruit. 


Fig.    500. 


Apples  injured  by  Green    Fruit 
Worms.     Original. 


Fig.    501. — A  Green    Fruit 
Worm.    Original. 


They  are  seldom  found  in  orchards  that  are  sprayed  early  in  the  sea- 
son, especially  if  arsenical  sprays  are  applied  to  the  buds  before  blooming 
time.  When  injuring  fruit, 
the  worms  may  be  jarred 
from  the  trees  and  killed.  It 
is  difficult  to  poison  them  at 
this  time,  because  they  are 
nearly  full  grown  and  are 
resistant  to  arsenicals ;  there- 
fore spraying  the  fruit  with 

poisons    is    not   likely   to    be       Fig.  502. -Adult  of  a  Green  Fruit  Worm, 
satisfactory.  Xylina  latidnerea.     Original. 


326  PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 

Xylina  laticirierea  Grt.   is    another    common  species  of  identical 
habits. 

The  Cranberry  Fruit-worm  (Mineola  vaccinii  Riley) 

The  growing  berries  are  eaten  into  and  the  contents  devoured  by  a 
small,  greenish  caterpillar,  half  an  inch  long  when  full  grown.     The  work 

begins  when  the  berries  are  small,  and  con- 
tinues until  they  are  coloring  up,  the  cat- 
erpillar entering  one  berry  after  another 
by  a  small  hole,  usually  thus  destroying 
three  or  four  by  the  time  it  is  full  grown. 


Fig.  504.  —  Larva  of  the  Cranberry  Fruit-worm. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size.     Original. 

Infested  berries  ripen  prematurely.     Win- 
ter is  passed  by  the  caterpillar  in  a  silk 
Fig.  503. — Work  of  the  Cran-     cocoon  in  the  sand, 
berry   Fruit-worm.     Orig-        ^^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  abundant,  reflow  at  once 
inal.  ,      ,  ' 

after  picking,  drawing  off  the  water  again 

after  ten  days.  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  may  be  used  when 
the  worms  first  appear,  but  must  be  applied  thoroughly  and  re- 
peated. 

The  Gooseberry  Fruit-worm  (Zophodia  grossularice  Pack.) 

Active,  pale  green,  shining  caterpillars,  three  fourths  of  an  inch  long 
when  mature,  eat  into  the  fruit  of  gooseberries  and  often  web  a  number 
of  berries  together.  When  disturbed,  they  promptly  let  themselves 
down  by  a  silk  thread.  There  is  one  generation  annually.  Hiber- 
nation takes  place  on  the  ground  in  the  pupal  stage. 


WORMS    BORING    INTO    THE    FRUIT 


327 


Fig.  505. — Work  of  the  Gooseberry  Fruit-worm.     Slightly  enlarged.     Original. 

Hand  picking  is  often  the  simplest  means  of  control.  If  necessary, 
Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  may  be  applied  in  order  to  stop  a  bad 
outbreak,  but  if  the  fruit  is  of 
good  size,  it  will  not  be  safe  to 
use  it.  Plowing  or  cleaning  up 
rubbish  in  the  fall  will  help  to  re- 
duce injury  the  following  season. 


Fig.  506. — Adult  of  the  Gooseberry 
Fruit-worm.  Slightly  enlarged.  Orig- 
inal. 


The  Raspberry  Span-worm 

(Synchlora  cerata  Fab.) 
The  fruit  of  raspberries  some- 
times   is    eaten   by   grayish   or 
yellowish  span-worms,  three  fourths  of  an  inch  long  when  mature. 

They  are  peculiar  in  their  habit 
of  decorating  themselves  with 
bits  of  flowers  or  leaves  stuck 


Jf^ 


Fig.  507.  — Adult  of  the  Raspberry  Span- 
worm.    Slightly  enlarged.     Original. 


Fig.    508.— The  Raspberry    Span- 
worm.    Original. 


328 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


on  the  short  spines  on  the  sides  of  their  bodies.     The  adult  is  a  delicate 
pale-green  moth. 

Hellebore  is  the  only  poison  that  is  safe  to  use  on  fruit  of  this  kind. 


Fig.  509. — Work  of  Climbing  Cutworms.    At  left,  larva  of  Peridroma  margari- 

tosa.     Original. 

Climbing  Cutworms  (Noctuidw) 

The  expanding  buds  of  fruit  trees,  especially  in  the  case  of  newly 
set  stock,  sometimes  are  eaten  out  and  destroyed,  no  worms  being  in 

evidence  when  the 
trees  are  looked 
over,  although  the 
trouble  continues. 
This  is  the  charac- 
teristic work  of  cer- 
tain cutworms, 
which,  in  the  lack 
of    other    food    to 

Fig.  510.  —  Adult  of  Cutworm,  Peridroma  margaritosa.  ^' 

Original.  the   trees    and  de- 


EATING    INTO    OR    INJURING    THE   FRUIT    BUDS 


329 


vour  the  tender  unfolding  tissues,  working  at  night  and  hiding  by 

%he  remedy  is  a  prompt  application  of  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead 
to  the  trees,  so  as  to  coat  the  buds.  Instead  of  this,  or  in  addition  to 
it  a  little  poison  bran  mash  may  be  placed  at  the  base  of  each  tree. 

Occasionally  the  buds  of  greenhouse  plants  are  attacked  m  similar 
manner.  A  hberal  dose  of  poison  bran  mash  is  then  indicated, 
scattered  on  the  the  ground  throughout  the  attack. 

The  Imbricated  Snout  Beetle  {Epimrus  imhricatus  Say) 
OccasionaUy  a  rather  large  snout-beetle,  its  wings  banded  in  zigzag 
pattern  with  brown  and  gray,  its  snout  short  and  broad,  feeds  on  the 
buds  or  young  fohage  of  tree  or  bush  fruits.     See  page  167.     The 
beetle  cannot  fly.     The  larva  lives  in  the  ground. 

Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  applied  early  as  a  spray  will  check 
the  insect's  work. 

The  New  York  Weevil  {Ithycerus  novehoracensis  Forst.) 
Large,  gray  snout-beetles,  half  an  inch  long  and  marked  with  black, 
appear  on  fruit  trees  in  early  spring,  gnaw 
into  the  tender  twigs,  and  eat  into  the  base  of 
buds.  The  larval  stage  is  passed  in  the  twigs 
of  oak  and  hickory,  and  injury  is  always 
greatest   on  fruit  trees    close    to    woodland. 

Thorough  spraying  with  Paris  green  or  arse-      ^ 

nate  of  lead  early  in  the  spring  when  the  buds  ^^^  .^^  _  ^^^  ^^^ 
are  swelling  is  the  only  direct  means  of  con-  York  Weevil.  Slightly 
,     ,  enlarged.     Original, 

trol. 

The  Pear  Thrips  {Euthrips  pijriDiiDl.) 
The  pear  thrips  is  a  minute  insect  attacking  the  newly  opening  flower 
and  leaf  buds  of  pear,  and,  in  California,  tho.e  of  prune,  cherry,  al- 
mond, peach,  and  apricot. 

The  evidence  of  attack  is  a  distorting,  blackemng,  or  complete  kilhng 


^0 


330 


FESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


of  the  opening  buds.     The  adult  thrips,  which  causes  this  injury,  is 

a  small,  winged  insect  with  sucking  mouth  parts.     It  comes  out  from  its 

winter  hiding  place  in  the  ground  at  the  time  that  growth  first  starts, 

and  as  soon  as  the  bud 
scales  have  parted,  works 
its  way  down  into  the 
flower,  puncturing  the  tis- 
sues and  sucking  the  juices. 
Egg  laying  begins  later, 
and  the  immature  thrips 
feeds  on  the  tender  leaf  tis- 
sues for  two  or  three  weeks. 
Then  it  drops  to  the  ground, 
penetrates  the  soil  to  a 
depth  of  three  or  four 
inches,  and  remains  there 
until  the  following  spring. 
Direct  control  is  possible 
by    means    of   timely  and 

thorough  spraying  with  tobacco  extract  (the  commercial  preparation), 

to  which  has  been  added  distillate  oil  emulsion  so  as  to  make  a  2  per 

cent  solution.     The  emulsion  is  prepared 

by  dissolving  8  pounds  of  whale-oil  soap 

in  3  gallons  of  boiling  water,  and  adding 

5    gallons    of   distillate    oil    (28  degrees 

Baume),  at    once    driving    the    mixture 

through  a  spray  pump  into  a  tank  or 

barrel.     One  gallon  of  the  emulsion  to  24 

gallons  of  the  tobacco  water  will  give  a 

2  per  cent  solution.     The  spraying  must 

be  done   just  as  the  buds  begin  to  un- 
fold, and  may  need  to  be  repeated. 
Deep    plowing  followed   by  thorough 

cultivation  in  the  fall,  to  disturb  and  destroy  the  pupating  larvae,  is 

of  value. 


Fig.  512. 


Expanding  buds  killed  by  the  Pear 
Thrips.     Original. 


Fig.  513.— The  Pear  Thrips. 
Enlarged  to  fifteen  times  nat- 
ural size.     Original. 


DWARFING    OR    INJURING    THE    BUDS  331 

The  Flower  Thrips  (Euthrips  tritici  Fitch) 

In  the  Southwest  the  opening  flower  and  fruit  buds  of  various  fruit 
trees  are  subject  to  serious  injury  by  minute,  slender,  active  insects  which 
enter  them  in  large  numbers  and  suck  the  juices  of  the  tender,  growing 
parts.  The  adults  have  two  pairs  of  narrow,  fringed  wings.  The 
younger  stages  are  wingless,  but  do  equal  damage  with  the  adults. 
The  injury  is  sometimes  so  severe  that  young  trees  are  killed. 

An  effective  remedy  is  thorough  spraying  with  tobacco  extract. 
Distillate  oil  emulsion  may  be  added  to  this,  as  recommended  for  the 
pear  thrips.     The  Flower  Thrips  is  illustrated  on  page  26. 

The  Peach  Bud  Mite  (Tarsonemus  waitei  Bks.) 

Young  peach  trees  in  nurseries  sometimes  suffer  severe  injury  to  the 
terminal  bud  or  shoot,  due  to  the  work  of  an  exceedingly  small,  eight- 
legged  mite.  The  main  shoot  dies,  or  fails  to  develop,  and  the  tree 
then  puts  out  several  new  shoots  below,  destroying  its  symmetry  and 
rendering  it  worthless  for  transplanting. 

Some  of  the  mites  hibernate  under  bud  scales,  but  it  is  possible  that 
others  may  spend  the  winter  on  some  other  host  plant. 

Careful  pruning  will  help  the  tree  to  overcome  injury  and  send  out  a 
new  terminal  shoot.  Lateral  buds  that  start  up  should  be  removed, 
in  order  to  avoid  a  bushy  top.  Spraying  with  self-boiled  lime  sulphur 
early  in  the  growing  season  may  kill  most  of  the  mites. 

The  Grape-blossom  Midge  {Contarinia  johnsoni  SHng.) 

The  flower  buds  of  early  varieties  of  grapes  sometimes  fail  to  develop 
properly  through  the  work  of  this  tiny  insect.  Buds  attacked  show  an 
abnormal  swelling  or  redness,  and  only  occasional  berries  will  set,  so 
that  the  bunches  of  fruit  will  be  straggling,  if  not  entirely  wanting. 

The  injury  is  due  to  the  larvae  of  a  minute  midge  that  appears  just 
as  the  buds  are  beginning  to  swell  and  lays  its  eggs  in  the  opening  ends. 
After  three  weeks  the  larvae  are  full  grown,  drop  to  the  ground,  and 
remain  there  until  the  following  year. 

Spraying  with  tobacco  extract  when  the  buds  first  begin  to  swell 


332 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


will  largely  avert  injury.     The  material  should  be  applied  thoroughly 
and  with  ample  force. 

The  Plum  Curculio  {Conotrachelus  nenuphar  Herbst.) 

.    The  fruits  of  plum,  apple,  and  cherry,  and  sometimes  of  peach,  are 
subject  to  injury  by  tliis  pest.     Round  or  crescent-shaped  punctures 

are  made  in  the  sides  of  the  fruit  by 
the  adult  beetles  in  feeding  and  egg 
laying.  Within  the  fruit  a  grub  or  worm 
develops. 

The  punctures  made  by  the  adult  are 
of   two    sorts.      In  feeding,    the  beetle 


Fig.  514.  — Egg-laying  punc- 
tures of  the  Plum  Curculio. 
Slightly  enlarged.  Original. 


Fig.  515.  — The  Plum  Curculio.     Enlarged  and 
natural  size.     Original. 

gnaws  out  a  small,  round  hole.  When 
egg  laying,  it  makes  a  crescent-shaped 
cut  around  the  point  at  which  it  has  in- 
serted its  egg  in  the  fruit.  These  in- 
juries  are   especially   serious   on    young 

fruit,  causing  them  to  grow  gnarly  and  misshapen. 

The  beetle  itself  is   quite   small,  three   sixteenths  of  an  inch  in 

length,  dark  in  color  with  lighter  markings,  and  has  four  ridges  or 

himips  on  its  back.      Its  mouth  parts  are  at  the  end  of  a  snout. 

The  larva  or  grub  is  whitish,  one  third  of  an  inch  long,  and  entirely 

without  feet. 
The  beetles  spend  the  winter  in  rubbish  or  similar  shelter  in  or  near 


GRUBS    DEVELOPING     WITHIN    THE    FRUIT 


333 


the  orchard.  Early  in  the  spring  they  come  out;  and  as  soon  as  the 
buds  are  unfolding  feed  sparingly  on  the  tender  tissues.  When  fruit 
has  set,  egg  laying  begins  and  continues 
for  several  weeks.  Infested  fruit  is  apt 
to  drop.  The  larva  enters  the  ground  to 
transform.  There  is  a  second  generation 
in  midsunmier,  the  adult  of  this  hiding 
away  until  the  following  spring. 

Control  is  best  directed  toward  killing 
the  overwintering  beetles  by  spraying 
the  trees  with  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris 
green  as  soon  as  the  buds  are  fairly  open- 
ing in  the  spring,  repeating  later  if  nec- 
essary. Where  trees  are  sprayed  at  the 
time  that  the  petals  fall,  this  will  consti- 
tute the  second  spraying.  In  addition, 
it  will  pay  to  eliminate  rubbish  as  far  as 
possible  from  the  orchard  or  its  neigh- 
borhood, and  to  adopt  clean  cultivation. 
The  former  will  destroy  the  hiding  places 
of  the  beetles,  and  the  latter  will   kill 

many  of  the  larvae  that  have  entered  the  soil  to  transform.  The 
destruction  of  fallen  fruit  at  frequent  intervals  is  of  value,  where 
feasible. 

On  plmii  trees  the  beetles  may  be  controlled  by  jarring  them  from  the 
trees  m  the  early  morning,  spreading  a  sheet  beneath  to  catch  them. 


Fig.  516.  —  Larva  and  work 
of  the  Plum  Curculio  in 
cherry.    Slightly  enlarged. 


The  Apple  Curculio  {Anthonomus  quadrigibbus  Say) 

Usually  the  curculio  attacking  the  fruit  of  the  apple  is  the  plum 
curculio.  Sometimes  the  depredator  is  the  pest  here  considered.  The 
work  of  this  species  may  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  plum  curculio 
by  the  fact  that  the  punctures  that  the  apple  curculio  makes  are  com- 
paratively inconspicuous.  The  beetle  itself  is  similar  to  the  plum 
curculio,  but  is  stouter  and  chunkier,  has  a  larger  snout,  and  has  four 
very  prominent  humps  on  its  back. 


334 


PJESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


The  life  round  is  much  hke  that  of  the  other  species.     The  adults 
hibernate  in  any  convenient  shelter,  and  lay  their  eggs  in  the  young 

fruit.     The  larva  is  a  footless  grub. 
Its  body  is  enlarged  in  a  sort  of 
hump  back  of  the  head.     It  pu- 
pates in  the  soil,  and  the  adults 
emerge  in  the  latter  part  of  sum- 
mer, soon  going  into  hibernation. 
On  small  trees  jarring  is  an  effec- 
tive plan.     On  larger  trees   early 
spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  or 
Paris  green  will  poison  many  of 
the  beetles.     Rubbish  of  all  sorts 
FiG.5i7.-The7^eCurculio.    En-     should  be  kept  cleaned  up,  in  order 
larged  and  natural  size.   Original.        to  eliminate  winter  hiding  places. 


The  Plum  Gouger  (Anthonornus  scutellaris  Lee.) 

The  plum  gouger  is  a  brownish  beetle,  one  fourth  of  an  inch  long, 
and  may  be  distinguished  from  the  plum  curcuUo  by  the  absence  of  the 
characteristic   humps    found    on  the   wing 
covers  of  the  curculio. 

Early  in  the  season  holes  are  eaten  in  the 
base  of  the  flower,   and  the  beetle   feeds 

on    the    part 

within      that 

would   later 

become      the 

fruit.      After 

the  plums  are 

of   some  size 

the    adult 

punctures    them     and     lays     an    egg 

within,    the    grub    li\'ing    inside    the 
Fig.  519.— The  Plum  Gouger.      .         .  ,        ^,  ?  i.     j 

Adult,   enlarged  and    natural      ^^^^g     seed.      The     adult    does    not 

size.    Original.  make    a   crescent-shaped   cut   around 


Fig.  518.  —  Feeding  punc- 
ture made  by  the  Plum 
Gouger.     Original. 


GBUBS    DEVELOPING     WITHIN    THE    FRUIT 


335 


the  punctures  as  does  the  curculio.     In  feeding  the  beetle  gouges  out 
small  round  holes. 

The  grub  pupates  inside  the  fruit,  and  then  emerges  as  an  adult.  In- 
fested plums  usually  drop  before  the  adult  is  due  to  emerge.  Hiber- 
nation takes  place  in  the  adult  stage. 

Jarring  the  trees  to  catch  the  beetles  is  a  fairly  effective  treatment. 
Prompt  destruction  of  fallen  fruit  is  of  value,  where  practicable.  Early 
sprajdng  with  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green,  as  recommended  for  the 
plum  curcuUo,  is  likely 
to  kill  most  of  the 
hibernating  adults. 

The  Grape  Curculio 
{Craponius    inoBqualis 
Say) 
The  fruit  of  grapes  is 
sometimes     found     in- 
fested by  a  white,  fleshy, 
inactive  grub,   footless, 
and    tapering    towards 
each  end.     This  is  the  larval  stage  of  the  grape  curculio.     It  may 
readily  be  distinguished  from  the  other   grub   commonly  found  in 
grapes,  that  of  the  grape  berry  moth,  which  has  distinct  legs,  is  more 

slender  and  cylindrical,  and  is  greenish 
or  Hght  purplish  in  color. 

The  adult  beetle  is  one  tenth  of  an  inch 
long,  quite  broad,  and  brown  in  color. 
It  appears  from  hibernation  when  the 
grapes  are  blossoming,  and  feeds  on  the 
foliage.  Later  it  begins  laying  eggs  in  the 
berries.  The  grub,  when  mature,  drops 
to  the  ground,  transforms  in  the  soil,  and  a 

new  generation  of  beetles  is  abroad  in  late 
Fig.  521.— The  Grape  Cur-  ,       ^,  .      .  ,  ., 

culio.    Enlarged   and   nat-      Summer,    shortly    entermg    hibernation. 

ural  size.    Original.  There  is  thus  one  generation  each  year. 


Fig. 


520.  —  Work  and  larva  of  the  Grape  Curculio. 
Slightly  enlarged.     Original. 


336 


FESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris   green  will   readily  poison 
the  adults  because  of  the  long  time  during  wliich  they  feed  on  the  grape 

foliage.  The  poison  should  be  applied 
just  after  the  grapes  finish  blooming. 
Vineyards  that  are  sprayed  regularly  with 
arsenicals  for  other  pests,  such  as  the 
grape  berry  moth,  will  not  find  this  in- 
sect in  evidence.  If  it  is  found  that 
many  berries  are  infested,  these  should 
be  collected  and  destroyed. 


Fig.  522.— The  Quince  Cur- 
culio.  Enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original. 


The  Quince  Curculio 

{Conotrachelus  crakegi  Walsh) 
Both  the  adult  and  the  grub  of  this 
species  injure  the  fruit  of  quinces.     The 
former  eats  holes  into  the  fruit,  when 
it  is  still  small.     The  latter  burrows 
within   the   flesh,    making    wandering 
cavities,  and  finally  eats  its  way  out 
through  the  skin.     Quinces  that  have 
been  punctured    by   the    adult    grow 
misshapen. 

The  adult  curculio  is  a  small,  snout 
beetle,  one  fourth  of  an  inch  long,  its 
body  broadest  at  the  middle  and  its 
back  marked  with  seven  longitudinal 
ridges.  Eggs  are  laid  under  the  skin 
of  the  young  fruit.  The  grubs  enter 
the  ground  when  full  grown,  and  re- 
main there  until  the  following  spring. 

The  only  effective  remedy  is  to  jar 
the  beetles  from  the  trees  in  the  early 
morning,  catching  them  on  sheets  and 
destroying  them.     The  application  of        ^^^  523. -Work  of  the  Straw- 
poison  sprays  is  of  no  avail.  berry  Weevil.     Original. 


GRUBS    DEVELOPING     WITHIN    THE    FRUIT 


337 


Fig.    524.- 
Weevil. 
Original. 


-Larvae    of     the    Strawberry 
Enlarged    and    natural    size. 


The  Strawberry  Weevil  {Anthonomus  signatus  Say) 

The  work  of  the  strawberry  weevil  is  conspicuous  and  unmistakable. 

Flower  buds,  soon  due  to  open,  are  seen  to  droop  and  bend  over,  and 

in  a  few  days  most  of  them  will 

break  off  and  fall  to  the  ground. 

If  one  is  cut  open  at  this  time, 

a    small,    white   grub   will    be 

found  within,    feeding   on   the 

inner  tissues  of  the  bud.     After 

lajang   an  egg  in   a   bud   the 

beetle  punctures  the  stem  just 

below,  so  that  the  bud  droops 

and  soon  falls.    The  grub,  when 

full  grown,  transforms   within 

the  bud  on  the  ground.    The 

new  lot  of  beetles  feed  for  a  time  in  various  places  and  then  hide 

away  until  the  next  year.     Only  staminate  varieties  are  attacked. 

Early  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead 
or  Paris  green  will  kill  many  beetles. 
The  material  should  be  applied  as  soon 
as  the  first  buds  begin  forming.  All 
rubbish  should  be  cleaned  up  around 
the  field.  When  badly  infested,  the 
plants  may  be  burned  over  at  once 
after  picking.  Wild  blackberries  and 
strawberries  should   be  destroyed.     It 

should  be  remembered  also  that  pistil- 
FiG.     525.  —  The      Strawberry        ,    ^  .    ,.  .  , 

Weevil.    Adult,  enlarged  and      |^^«   varieties  are    unmune    from   any 
natural  size.     Original.  injury. 


The  Codling  Moth  (Carpocapsa  pomonella  Linn.) 

A  pinkish,  rather  fleshy  worm  eats  cavities  within  the  fruit  of  apples, 
especially  through  and  around  the  core,  and  finally  bores  a  large  hole 
to  the  surface. 
z 


338 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Fig.  526.  —  Section  through  apple  showing  characteristic 
work  of  the  Codling  Moth.     Original. 


The  adult  is  an  inconspicuous,  brownish  moth,  and  emerges  in  the 
spring  from  a  cocoon  usually  located  under  rough  scales  on  the  bark 
of  the  tree.  Eggs  are  laid  on  leaves  or  some- 
times on  the  fruit 
itself. 


Fig.  527.  —  Larva  of 
the  Codling  Moth. 
Slightly  enlarged. 
Original. 


Fig.  528.  —  Cocoon  of 
the  Codling  Moth  un- 
derneath a  piece  of 
bark.  At  the  top,  the 
pupa.     Original. 


makes  its  way  to  the 

nearest     apple     and 

enters  the  young  fruit  through  the  calyx  end 

of  its  life  inside,  and  when  mature,  eats  its 


Fig.  529.  — The  Cod- 
ling Moth.  Adult, 
slightly  enlarged. 

Original. 

.     It  feeds  for  the  rest 
way  out,  travels  to  a 


WOEMS    DEVELOPING     WITHIN    THE    FRUIT 


339 


Fig.  530.  —  The  time  to  spray  for  the  Cod- 
ling Moth.   The  calyx  still  open.   Original. 


suitable  shelter,  and  spins  its  cocoon.  Here  it  may  remain  until  the 
next  spring,  but  in  the  Central  and  Southern  states  there  is  a  second 
brood.  The  larvae  of  the 
latter  often  feed  merely  on 
the  surface  of  the  apple  in- 
stead of  boring  into  it. 

Control  consists  in  spray- 
ing with  arsenate  of  lead. 
The  most  important  point  is 
to  apply  the  material  just 
after  the  blossoms  fall,  while 
the  calyx  cup  is  still  open, 
and  to  direct  the  spray  so 
that  the  poison  will  lodge  in 
the  blossom  end  of  the  up- 
turned apples.  A  second 
spraying  about  three  weeks 
later,  at  the  time  when  the 
worms  are  just  hatching,  will  augment  the  value  of  the  first,  because 
the  larvae  feed  a  little  on  the  leaf  before  going  to  the  apple.     For  the 

second  brood  in  midsummer 
arsenate  of  lead  is  used,  as 
for  the  fu"st  brood. 


The  Lesser  Apple  Worm 

(Laspeyresia  {Enarmonia) 

prunivora  Walsh) 
Injury  to  the  fruit  of  ap- 
ples by  the  lesser  apple  worm 
is  often  confused  with  that 
of  the  codling  moth,  but  is 
distinct  on  careful  examina- 
tion. Early  in  the  season 
the  injury  is  apt  to  take  the 
form  of  small  cavities  eaten 


Fig.  531.  —  Too  late  to  spray  for  the  Cod- 
ling Moth.    The  calyx  closed.     Original. 


340 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


into  the  surface  of  the  fruit  at  the  calyx  end.     When  the  fruit  is 
ripening,   the   damage   is  more  conspicuous  and   more   serious.     At 

this  time  the  second 
brood  larvae  are  ac- 
tive, and  blotch  mines 
are  made  just  under 
the  skin  of  the  apple. 
The  larva  within  may 
penetrate  the  pulp  to 
a  depth  of  half  an 
inch,  or  occasionally 
nearly  to  the  core. 
Frequently  the  work 
goes  on  for  some  time 
after  the  fruit  is 
picked. 

The  parent  insect 
is  a  small  moth.  Eggs 
are  laid  soon  after  the 


Fig.  532. 


Injury  by  the  Lesser  Apple  Worm. 
Original. 


fruit  is  set.  The  full-grown  larva  is  one  fourth  to  one  third  of  an  inch 
long.  Pupation  takes  place  under  scales  of  bark  on  limbs,  or  some- 
times in  the  calyx  end  of  the  fruit. 
The  larvae  of  the   second   brood 


Fig.  533. — Larvae  of  the  Lesser  Apple 
Worm.     Enlarged.     Original. 

pass  the  winter  in  inconspicuous 
cocoons,  in  situations  similar  to 
those  of  the  first  brood,  or  in  barrels 
in  which  fruit  has  been  placed. 


Fig.  534.  —  Section  through  apple 
showing  characteristic  work  of  the 
Lesser  Apple  Worm.  Enlarged. 
Original. 


SMALL     WORMS    DEVELOPING     WITHIN    THE    FRUIT     341 


Control  measures  are  the  same  as  those  recommended  for  the  codhng 
moth :  thorough  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  just  after  the  petals 
fall,  and  again  the  first  of  August. 


Fig.  535. 


■Adult  of  the  Lesser  Apple  Worm, 
and  natural  size.    Original. 


Enlarged 


The  Grape  Berry  Moth  {Polychrosis  viteana  Clem.) 

Most  "  wormy  "  grapes,  so  often  seen  on  vines,  exhibit  the  charac- 
teristic work  of  the  grape  berry  moth.  While  the  berry  is  still  green, 
a  purpUsh  spot  appears  on  one  side.  If  it  is  cut  open,  a  small 
greenish  or  purplish  caterpillar  will  be  found  within. 

This  is  the  larva  of  the  sec- 
ond brood.  Earlier  in  the  sea^ 
son,  when  the  grapes  are  in 
blossom  or  the  berries  are  just 
forming,  the  inconspicuous  first 
brood  of  caterpillars  is  on  the 
vines,  eating  into  the  blossoms 
and  tiny  frilit,  and  webbing  up 
the  clusters. 

The  insect  overwinters  as  a 
pupa  in  a  little  cell  made  by 


Fig.  536.  —  Section  through  grape,  show- 
ing larva  and  work  of  the  Grape  Berry 
Moth.     Original. 


342 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Fig.  537.  —The  Grape  Berry  Moth.    En 
larged  and  natural  size.     Original. 


cutting  out  a  small  piece  of  a  leaf.     These  cells  break  loose  from  the 
leaves  after  the  latter  fall.     The  moths  emerge  in  the  spring  and  lay 

eggs  on  the  stems  or  fruit. 
The  second  brood  of  moths  are 
out  in  July,  and  in  the  North 
there  is  a  partial  tliird  brood  in 
August. 

Thorough  and  timely  spray- 
ing with  arsenate  of  lead  will 
control  this  pest.  The  first 
spray  must  be  apphed  just  be- 
fore blooming,  the  second  just 
after,  and  the  third  when  the 
berries  are  half  grown.  Soap  may  be  added  to  the  spray  material  to 
make  it  spread  and  stick  to  better  advantage.  If  the  vineyard  is 
plowed  in  the  fall,  many  of  the  overwintering  pupae  will  be  buried 
or  killed. 

The  Raspberry  Byturus  {By turns  umcolor  Say) 

The  fruit  of  red  raspberries  sometimes  is  stunted  by  the  work  of 
this  beetle  and  its  grub.  Occasionally  the  leaves  are  riddled  by  the 
feeding  of  the  beetles. 

The  adult  beetle  is  one  seventh 
inch  long,  and  brownish  in  color. 
It  appears  in  spring,  feeds  on  the 
fohage,  and  eats  into  the  flower 
buds.  In  midsummer  the  grubs 
are  at  work  and  will  be  found  in 
the  thick  white  base  on  which  the 
berry  is  borne.  The  grub  is  one 
fourth  inch  long,  and  marked  across 
each  segment  with  brown.  Infested 
berries  ripen  early  and  are  dwarfed 
in  the  soil. 


Fig.  538.  —  The  Raspberry  Byturus. 
Adult,  enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


The  larva  spends  the  winter 
Control  is  best  secured  by  spraying  the  foliage  with  arsenate  of  lead 


MAGGOTS    TUNNELING     WITHIN    THE    FRUIT  343 

or  Paris  green  to  poison  the  beetles  when  they  appear  in  the  spring. 
Since  they  feed  freely  on  the  leaves,  the  majority  of  them  will  be  killed 
by  an  application  of  poison  at  this  time. 

The  Apple  Maggot  {Rhagoletis  pornonella  Walsh) 
In  the  northeastern  states  early  or  sweet  apples,  or  sometimes  late 
fruit,  are  often  infested  with  the  so-called  ''  railroad  worm,"  a  small, 
whitish  maggot  which  tunnels  here  and  there  through  the  pulp  of  the 


Fig.  539.  — Section  through  apple,  showing  charac- 
teristic work  of  the  Apple  Maggot.     Original. 

apple  as  it  ripens,  making  a  small,  brown  track  wherever  it  goes.  In 
thin-skinned  varieties,  these  tunnels  are  apt  to  show  through  from  the 
outside  as  wandering,  brown  tracks.  This  insect  must  clearly  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  common  "  apple  worm  "  or  codling  moth,  which 
eats  preferably  in  and  around  the  core  and  gnaws  a  large  and  con- 
spicuous hole  to  the  surface. 

A  two-winged  fly,  with  oblique-banded  wings,  is  the  parent  of  the  rail- 
road worm.     It  appears  in  July,  and  lays  its  eggs,  one  at  a  time,  under- 


344 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


Fig.  540.  — Adult  of  the  Apple  Maggot.     Original. 

neath  the  skin  of  the  apple.  The  maggot  feeds  in  the  pulp,  completing 
its  growth  after  the  apple  has  fallen  from  the  tree  and  has  become  more 
or  less  mellow.  It  then  bores  its  way  out,  enters  the  ground,  and  re- 
mains there  until  the  following  July. 

The  maggot  cannot  be  killed  by  spray- 
ing because  it  feeds  wholly  within  the 
pulp  of  the  fruit  during  its  entire  life. 
Control  consists  in  keeping  dropped 
fruit  picked  up,  so  that  the  maggots 
will  not  have  a  chance  to  enter  the 
ground.  Very  early  fruit  should  be 
picked  up  twice  a  week,  fall  fruit  once 
a  week,  and  winter  fruit  once  in  two  or 
Fig.  .541.  — Egg  of  the  Apple     three  weeks. 

Maggot,  inserted  beneath  skin  ^ .  ,      ,  ,       ,  i    •    , 

of  fruit.     Greatly   enlarged.         ^ive  stock  may  be  turned  mto  an 

Original.  orchard  to  eat  up  the  apples  as  they 


MAGGOTS    FEEDING     WITHIN    THE    FRUIT 


345 


drop.     Pigs,  sheep,  or  cattle  will  often  accomplish  this  to  good  advan- 
tage.    Cliickens  will  hunt  out  and  destroy  many  of  the  pupa)  in  the  soil. 


Fig.  542.  — Burrows  of  the  Apple  Maggot,  show- 
ing through  skin  of  fruit.     Original. 

The  Cherry  Fruit  Maggot  {Rhagoletis  cingulata  Loew.) 
Small,  whitish,  footless  maggots  about  one  third  of  an  inch  long  are 
found  in  the  pulp  of  ripening  cherries,  where  they  tunnel  about,  causing 
decayed  ca\dties.     The  adult  is  a 
small  fly  with  barred  wings .    Eggs 
are  laid   under  the   skin  of  the 


Fig.  543.  — Adult  of  the  Cherry  Fruit 
Maggot,  enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


Fig.  544.— The  Cherry  Fruit  Mag- 
got. Larvse,  enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original. 


346 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS 


fruit  in  midsummer.  When  full  grown,  the  maggot  leaves  the  fruit 
and  enters  the  ground,  its  skin  contracting  and  hardening  to  form  a 
puparium.     It  remains  there  until  the  following  season. 

Where  trees  are  badly  infested,  chickens  may  be  made  use  of  to 

scratch  up  and  eat  the  puparia. 
No  measures  in  the  way  of 
spraying  are  available. 

The  Pear   Midge 

(Contarinia  pyrivora  Riley) 

Early    in    the    season     the 

young  fruit  of  pears  becomes 

stunted    and   distorted.     If    a 
Fig.  545.  —  Section  through  young  pear, 
showing   work   and  larva  of   the  Pear 
Midge.     Original. 

fruit  is  cut  open,  tiny  maggots  wiU  be 

found  within,  working  especially  in  and 

around  the  core. 
Eggs  are  laid  when  the  buds  first  open 

by  an   exceedingly  small  midge.     After 

completing  its  growth  the  maggot  leaves 

the  fruit  and  enters  the  ground,  where  it  remains  until  the  follow- 

ing  spring.     There  is    one   brood 
annually. 

No  satisfactory  means  of  con- 
trol has  been  devised. 


The  Currant  Fruit-fly 
(Epochra  canadensis  Loew.) 
In  early  summer  a  small,  white 
maggot  may  be  found  working  in 
the  berries  of  currants  or  goose- 
berries. The  parent  insect  is  a 
yellowish,  two-winged  fly  with 
barred     wings.       Eggs    are    laid 


Fig.  546.  —  Larvae  of  the 
Pear  Midge,  enlarged  and 
natural  size.     Original. 


Fig.  547.  —  Work  of  the  Currant  Fruit- 
fly.     Original. 


DWARFING    OR    SCARRING     THE    FRUIT 


347 


under  the  skin  of  the  fruit.  Infested  fruit  usually  falls  to  the  ground. 
When  full  grown,  the  maggot  bores  out  of  the  berry,  enters  the 
ground,  and  remains  there  until  the  following  spring,  when  the  adults 

issue  once  more. 
The  use  of  poultry  to  pick  up 


Fig.  548.  —  Section  through  currant, 
showing  work  and  larva  of  the  Cur- 
rant Fruit-fly.     Enlarged.     Original. 

the  fallen  infested  fruit  is    prac- 
tically 


Fig.  549.— The  Currant  Fruit-fly 
Adult,  enlarged  and  natural  size 
Original. 


the  only 
available 
remedy, 

unless  it  is  feasible  to  have  the  fruit  gathered 

by  hand. 

The  Tarnished  Plant-bug 

(Lygus  pratensis  Linn.) 
A  brownish  bug,  not  over  one  fifth  of  an 
inch  long  when  full  grown,  occasionally 
injures  the  buds  and  the  young  fruit  on 
apple  trees  by  sucking  the  juices.  Buds  are 
dwarfed  or  killed,  and  sometimes  the  fruit 
shows  marked  dimples  or  similar  deformities, 
due  to  egg-laying  punctures  of  the  adults. 
The  adults  hibernate  in  rubbish.     If  the 


Fig.  550.— Work  of  a  Plant- 
bug,  Lygus  invitus.  Orig- 
inal. 


348 


PESTS    OF    ORCHARD    AND     SMALL    FRUITS 


orchard  and  its  surroundings  are  thoroughly  cleaned  of  weeds  and 
litter  in  the  fall,  there  is  not  likely  to  be  noticeable  damage.     The 

bugs  may  be  jarred  from  small  trees. 

A  related  species,  Lijgus  invitus 
Say,  is  a  pest  on  pears,  scarring  the 
fruit  by  its  feeding  punctures. 


The  Apple  Red  Bugs 

{Heterocordylus  malinus  Rent.,  and 
Lygidea  mendax  Reut.) 

Sucking  bugs,  about  one  fourth  of 
an  inch  long,  known  as  apple  red  bugs 
because  of  their  brilliant  color  in 
their  younger  stages,  puncture  young 
fruit,  causing  it  to  grow  distorted. 
There  are  two  species,  similar  in 
appearance. 
Eggs  are  inserted  in  the  bark,  and  hatch  in  early  spring.     The  young 

feed   at   first    on   the   newly  expanding 

foliage,  making  numerous  punctures  and 

giving  the  leaves  at  times  a  red  appear- 
ance.    Later  they  attack  the  fruit. 
The  remedy  is  to  spray  with  tobacco 

extract  just  after  the  leaves  expand  and 

before  the  blossoms  open,  so  as  to  kill 

the  younger  stages  soon  after  they  hatch 

from  the  egg.     Soap  may  be  added  to 

the  spray  material. 


Fig 


551.  —  Work  of  Apple  Red 
Bugs.    Original. 


Fig.  552.  —The  Negro  Bug. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


The  Negro  Bug  {Thyreocoris  (Corimelcena)  pidicaria  Germ.) 
Exceedingly  small,  hard-shelled,  shiny  black  bugs,  resembling  tiny 
beetles,  sometimes  feed  on  the  ripe  fruits  of  raspberry  or  blackberry, 
giving  the  fruit  an  unpleasant  flavor.     Usually  they  are  not  common 
enough  to  demand  attention.     No  remedial  measures  are  known. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 


Insect  Pests  of  the   Household  and  Stored  Products 


House  Flies 


The  commonest  fly  found  in  houses  is  the  species  properly  known  as 
the  House  Fly  {Musca  domestica  Linn.).  It  is  of  medium  size,  grayish, 
and  has  mouth  parts  dilated  at  the  end  in  a  sort  of  lobe,  fitted  for  tak- 
ing up  liquid  food.  Its 
early  stages  are  passed  in 
moist,  decaying  matter, 
especially  horse  manure  or 
other  excrement.  These 
flies  never  bite ;  but  they 
are  pernicious  visitors  be- 
cause of  their  filthy  habits, 
and  their  known  agency 
in  the  dissemination  of 
disease. 

A  second    species,    the 
Stable  Fly  {Stomoxys  cal- 
citrans  Linn.),  is  the  pest 
that  annoys  us  by  "  biting,"  especially  before  storms.     It  has  piercing 
mouth  parts. 

Other  species  often  are  observed,  but  the  two  named  above  are  in 
the  great  majority,  and  of  these  two  the  house  fly  is  by  far  the  more 
numerous. 

Since  flies  are  known  to  carry  disease,  it  is  of  prime  importance  to 
be  rid  of  them  in  our  homes.  Proper  screening  is  the  first  requisite, 
and  nothing  can  be  accomplished  without  this  fundamental  protection. 

349 


Fig.  553. — The  House  Fly.     Original. 


350       PESTS    OF    THE  HOUSEHOLD   AND   STORED   PRODUCTS 

But  in  addition  we  must  look  to  the  breeding  places,  especially  manure 
heaps.  Usually  the  most  feasible  plan  of  caring  for  these  is  to  inclose 
or  otherwise  screen  them.     If  the  manure  can  be  removed  once  a 

week,  flies  cannot  complete 
their  life  round  in  it. 

An  effective  means  of 
poisoning  flies  that  have 
already  gained  access  to  a 
room  is  as  follows  : 

Add  two  tablespoonfuls 
(1  ounce)  of  40  per  cent 
formalin  to  one  pint  (16 
ounces)  of  sweet  milk,  or 
of  equal  parts  milk  and 
water.  Pour  this  out  in 
shallow  plates,  so  that  flies 
can  get  at  it  easily.  A 
piece  of  bread  placed  in 
the  middle   of   each   plate 


Fig. 


554.  — The  Stable 
natural  size. 


Fly.      Enlarged   and 
Original. 


will  allow  more  space  for  flies  to  alight  and  feed. 

Catching  flies  by  means  of  traps,  or  with  sticky  fly  paper,  is  a  uni- 
versal practice,  and  helps  in  reducing  the  numbers  within  a  room,  but 
the  method  described  above  will  usually  be  found  more  rapid  and 
effective. 


Mosquitoes  {Culicidce) 

Mosquitoes  are  of  many  species,  but  most  have  at  least  one  point 
in  common ;  their  immature  stages  are  found  in  stagnant  water.  They 
do  not  require  breeding  places  of  large  area.  An  open  rain-water 
barrel,  an  old  watering  trough,  tin  cans  containing  rain  water;  aU 
such  places  provide  suitable  breeding  ground. 

The  larvae  are  familiarly  known  as  "  wrigglers,"  and  live  on  minute 
animal  or  vegetable  hfe,  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water.  They  must 
come  to  the  surface  occasionally  to  breathe.  Following  the  larval, 
there  is  an  active  pupal  stage,  preceding  the  emergence  of  the  adult. 


MOSQUITOES    AND    ANTS  351 

The  entire  life  round  requires  only  ten  days  to  two  weeks  under  favor- 
able circumstances. 

Any  thorough  effort  at  control  is  best  directed  toward  destroying 
the  breeding  places  or  preventing  the  insect  from  breeding  in  such  as 
cannot  be  destroyed.  The  latter  may  be  accomplished  by  pouring  oil 
on  the  water,  so  as  to  prevent  the  larvae  from  reaching  the  air  when 
they  come  up  to  breathe.  Large  tanks  above  ground  may  be  screened. 
In  a  word,  stagnant  water  must  be  eliminated,  or  mosquitoes  kept 
from  it.  In  addition  careful  screening  of  houses  is  highly  desirable, 
especially  since  some  diseases  are  carried  by  certain  species. 

In  clearing  a  room  of  mosquitoes  a  fairly  satisfactory  substance  is 
available  in  pyrethrum,  or  '^  Persian  insect  powder."  This  may  be 
heaped  up  in  little  piles  on  a  pan  and  lighted ;  or,  better,  it  may  be 
poured  out  on  a  piece  of  tin  or  a  pan  set  over  a  kerosene  lamp.  In 
the  latter  case  not  much  smoke  is  given  off,  but  the  volatile  oil  that 
stupifies  the  insect  permeates  the  air. 

Another  and  successful  fumigant  consists  of  1  part  of  saltpeter 
mixed  with  3  parts  of  powdered  jimson  weed,  and  burned  on  a  tin  pan. 
Eight  ounces  to  1000  cubic  feet  is  sufficient. 

House  Ants 

The  commonest  ants  in  houses  are  the  ''  httle  red  ant,"  Monomorium 
pharaonis  L.,  and  a  closely  related  species,  somewhat  larger  and  black 
in  color,  Monomorium  minutum  Mayr. 

In  getting  rid  of  ants  it  is  a  great  help  if  the  main  colonies  can  be 
hunted  out  and  destroyed.  The  black  ant  hves  outdoors,  and  enters 
the  house  through  some  convenient  crack.  The  little  red  ant  always 
has  its  nest  in  the  walls  or  under  the  floors. 

Either  may  be  caught  and  killed  in  large  numbers  by  saturating  a 
sponge  with  sweetened  water,  placing  it  where  they  are  abundant,  and 
now  and  then  dropping  the  sponge  into  boihng  water.  Scraps  of  bone 
or  meat  will  do  as  well,  and  should  be  burned  when  well  covered. 

A  successful  method  of  fighting  ants  has  recently  been  devised  in 
California  in  the  warfare  against  the  notorious  Argentine  Ant  (Iri- 
domtjnnex  humilis  Mayr.),  which  overruns  dwellings,  stores,  and  ware- 


352       PESTS   OF   TH^  HOUSEHOLD   AND   STORED   PRODUCTS 


Fig.  555.  —The  Little  Red  Ant.    En 
larged  and  natural  size.     Original. 


houses  and  is  an  intolerable  pest.  In  this  case  it  is  not  possible  to 
hunt  out  and  destroy  the  nests  because  they  are  made  in  every  con- 
ceivable location.  The  plan  consists  in  setting  out  numerous  supplies 
of  a  dilute,  slow-acting  poison,  which  the  foraging  ants  not  only  eat 

but  carry  back  to  the  nests  and 
feed  to  the  young.  By  using  a 
diluted  poison  the  colony  itself  is 
slowly  exterminated,  as  well  as  the 
foragers  that  go  out  from  it. 

The  poison  is  prepared  by  dis- 
solving 5  pounds  of  sugar  in  1^ 
pints  of  water,  placing  it  in  a 
double  boiler  and  heating  gently. 
Then  dissolve  one  fourth  ounce  of 
sodium  arsenite  in  a  little  hot 
water,  and  add  this  to  the  syrup 
solution.  Place  a  sponge  in  a 
can  or  a  glass  jar  with  a  tin  lid, 
and  punch  three  or  four  holes  in  the  lid.  Moisten  the  sponge  with 
the  poisoned  syrup.  If  ants  avoid  the  jar  after  a  time,  move  it 
sUghtly,  and  they  will  again  visit  it.  In  large  buildings  it  is  neces- 
sary to  provide  several  of  the  jars  for  each  floor.  In  residences 
from  one  to  six  jars  usually  will  be  sufficient.  Often  one  will  do  the 
work. 

The  above  material  is  poisonous  to  human  beings,  and  proper  care 
should  be  taken  in  its  preparation  and  use. 

The  best  barrier  to  prevent  ants  from  gaining  access  to  places  where 
food  is  placed  or  stored  is  the  so-called  "  ant  tape."  To  make  this 
prepare  a  saturated  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  and  water  by  heat- 
ing an  excess  of  the  crystals  in  water  in  a  granite  or  porcelain  vessel 
(not  iron),  cooling  and  filtering.  Soak  common  cotton  tape  in  this  for 
several  hours,  then  take  out,  hang  up,  and  dry.  Ants  will  not  cross 
this  tape.  It  will  remain  effective  for  a  year,  but  must  not  be  placed 
in  contact  with  any  iron,  tin,  or  aluminum.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  corrosive  sublimate  is  a  dangerous  poison. 


ROACHES    AND    FLEAS 


353 


Roaches 

At  least  four  species  of  roaches  are  common  in  the  United  States: 
the  American  Cockroach  {Periplaneta  americana  Linn.),  the  Oriental 
Cockroach  {Blatta  orientalis  Linn.),  the  Australian  Roach  {Periplaneta 
australasice  Fab.),  and  the  German  Roach,  or  "  Croton  Bug"  {Blatella 
germanica  Linn . ) . 

All  are  more  or  less  domesticated,  eat  any  kind  of  food  product,  and 
leave  behind  them  a  disgusting  odor. 

In  some  species  both  males  and  females  are  winged,  while  in  others 
the  female  has  only  short  remnants  of  wings.     All  are  alike  in  having 


Fig.  556.  — The  German  Roach,  or  "  Croton  Bug."     Shghtly  enlarged. 

Original. 


The  young  look  much  like  the 
From  one  to  three  years  are 


flat,  thin  bodies,  and  strong,  biting  jaws, 
adults,  but  are  of  course  much  smaller. 
required  for  their  development. 

A  number  of  prepared  poisons  are  on  the  market  for  the  destruction 

of  roaches,  and  some  of  these  are  fairly  effective.     Various  traps  are 

employed.     Large  numbers  may  be  killed  by  setting  out  two  shallow 

dishes,  one  containing  flour  and  plaster  of  Paris  mixed  together,  and 

2  a 


354       PESTS    OF    THE   HOUSEHOLD   AND   STORED  PRODUCTS 

the  other  water.  Use  four  parts  of  flour  to  one  part  of  plaster  of 
Paris.  Arrange  the  dishes  so  that  roaches  can  easily  climb  on  them  and 
pass  from  one  to  the  other.  Badly  infested  buildings  may  be  entirely 
cleared  by  fumigation  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  in  using  this  treatment,  for  it  is  violently  poisonous. 

Fleas 

Fleas  are  too  well  known  to  need  description.  Where  houses  become 
infested,  the  trouble  is  nearly  always  traceable  to  a  pet  cat  or  dog, 
although  the  pest  may  be  brought  in  on  clothing  of  a  visitor.  The 
species  usually  observed  is  the  common  Cat 
and  Dog  Flea  (Ctenocephalus  canis  Curt.). 
^^H^^^  The  adult  flea  lays  eggs  among  the  hairs  of 

J^^^H9^  its  animal  host.     These  drop  off,  and  the  egg 

ST    yE'      ^  hatches  to  form  a  minute,  white,  slender  larva, 

Vv    \^  which  lives  in  cracks  in  the  floor  or  other  pro- 

tected places,  feeding  on  any  available  organic 

matter,  such  as  hairs,   or  even  dust.     The 
Fig.  557.  —  The  Cat  and     ,  ,  <•  ,  i  i   j^      j^i         i    tj 

Dog    Flea      Enlarged    ^^^^^  transforms  to  a  pupa,  and  later  the  adult 

and  natural  size.    Orig-    emerges,  ready  to  leap  on  the  first  cat  or  dog 

i^^l-  that  comes  its  way,  or  on  a  human  being. 

To  rid  a  house  of  fleas  all  cracks  must  be  washed  with  hot  suds,  and 
preferably  dosed  with  gasoline.  At  the  same  time  any  animal  pets 
must  be  looked  after  and  cleared  of  the  insect.  Insect  powder  dusted 
thoroughly  into  the  animal's  fur  will  stupefy  the  fleas  and  cause  them 
to  drop  off.     They  may  then  be  gathered  up  and  destroyed. 

Another  treatment  is  to  scatter  over  the  floor  of  a  room  4  or  5  pounds 
of  naphthaline,  and  keep  the  place  tightly  closed  for  24  hours.  This 
will  effectually^  rid  a  room  of  the  adult  insects,  but  will  not  be  likely  to 
affect  any  eggs  that  might  be  present.  The  naphthaline  may  be  swept 
up  and  used  over  again. 

The  Bedbug   (Cimex  lectularius  Linn.) 

The  bedbug  is  an  ancient  and  cosmopolitan  insect,  existing  through- 
out the  world.     It  has  become  wholly  domesticated,  and  lives  entirely 


BEDB UG  —  CL 0 THES    MOTHS 


355 


in  human  dwellings,  hiding  away  in  crevices  by  day,  and  coming  out 
to  suck  the  blood  of  its  unfortunate  host  by  night.  Normally  its  hfe 
round  requires  about  three  months,  but  it 
can  exist  for  a  long  time  in  a  house  tempo- 
rarily vacated.  In  cities  it  sometimes 
migrates  from  vacant  residences  to  others 
near  by  that  are  occupied.  The  young  are 
similar  in  shape  to  the  adults,  and,  like  their 
parents,  have  a  strong  sucking  beak. 

A   thorough  course  of  treatment  of   all 
hiding  places  is  necessary  for  their  eradica- 


FiG.  558.  — The  Bedbug. 
Enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original. 


Fig.  559.  — Head  of  Bedbug.  Greatly 
enlarged.     Original. 


tion,  unless  it  is  possible  to  vacate 
a  house  for  two  or  three  days  and 
fumigate  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 
Gasoline,  corrosive  sublimate,  or  tur- 
pentine may  be  used  in  cracks  to  kill 
them.  In  vacant  houses  sulphur 
may  be  burned,  using  it  at  the  rate 
of  2  pounds  to  the  100  cubic  feet, 
and  placing  the  material  in  a  metal 
or  earthen  dish,  which  should  in 
turn  be  placed  within  a  larger 
dish,  to  guard  against  danger  of 
fire. 


The  Clothes  Moths 

Several  species  of  tiny,  dusky  moths  lay  eggs  in  woolens  or  furs, 
the  resulting  larvae  feeding  on  the  garments,  eating  holes  in  them,  and 
often  doing  irreparable  damage.  The  larva  of  a  common  species. 
Tinea  pellionella  L.,  makes  a  little  case  within  which  it  feeds. 

In  the  Northern  states  this  particular  species  occurs  in  the  larval 
state  —  the  only  stage  in  which  it  is  directly  destructive  —  in  summer 
only.  In  the  South  it  may  occur  all  the  year.  The  adults  are  on  the 
wing  at  any  time  in  the  warmer  months.  They  are  active  and  shy, 
and  avoid  the  light. 


356       PESTS   OF   THE  HOUSEHOLD   AND    STORED   PRODUCTS 

Attack  is  most  severe  on  winter  clothing  laid  away  for  the  summer. 
Garments  should  be  hung  out  in  the  sunlight  and  thoroughly  brushed 


Fig.  560.  — Work  of  Clothes  Moths.     Original. 

or  beaten  before  being  packed  away.  They  may  then  be  inclosed  in 
boxes,  and  the  cracks  sealed  with  gummed  paper.  This  work  should 
be  done  before  hot  weather  has  arrived.     Deterrants,  such  as  naphtha- 


FiG.  561.  —  A  Clothes  Moth,  Tinea  pellionella.     Enlarged  and  natural  size. 

Original. 


line  or  moth  balls,  are  of  moderate  value.  Upholstered  furniture  and 
the  like  should  be  sprayed  or  sponged  with  gasoline  two  or  three  times 
in  summer. 


CARPET  BEETLE  —  SILVER  FISH — CHEESE  SKIPPER     357 


The  Carpet  Beetle,  or  Buffalo  Moth  {Anthrenus  scrophularice  L.) 

A  small,  hairy,  oval  larva,  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch  long,  feeds  on 
carpets,  working  from  the  under  side,  and  usually  following  the  line  of 
a  crack  in  the  floor.     The  adult  is  a  beetle,  thi-ee  sixteenths  of  an  inch  in 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Fig.  562.  — Work  of  the  Car- 
pet Beetle.    Original. 


Fig.  563.— The  Carpet  Beetle. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


length,  dark  in  color,  and  irregularly  mottled  with  white.     The  beetles 
appear  through  the  fall  and  winter. 

Where  rugs  are  used,  no  damage  is  recorded  as  a  rule.  If  carpets 
are  necessary,  and  infestation  is  in  progress,  it  is  essential  to  take  up 
the  floor  coverings,  spray  them  with  gasoline,  and  wash  all  cracks  with 
hot  suds,  following  with  gasoline. 


The  Silver  Fish  {Lepisma  saccharina  L.) 

Substances  containing  sugar,  starch,  or  sizing  are  sometimes  injured 
by  a  tiny,  active,  wingless  insect  of  a  silvery  appearance,  having  very 
long  antennae  and  three  long  feelers  at  the  hind  end  of  the  body.  It 
invariably  runs  quickly  away  when  objects  on  which  it  is  at  work  are 
brought  to  the  light. 

Pyrethrum  dusted  into  places  where  it  hides  will  kill  them,  or  they 
may  be  poisoned  by  dipping  pieces  of  cardboard  into  a  thick  paste  in 
which  has  been  mixed  Paris  green,  and  sUpping  these  into  cracks  where 
they  are  abundant. 


358       PESTS    OF   THE   HOUSEHOLD   AND   STORED   PRODUCTS 

The  Cheese  Skipper  (Piophila  casei) 

The  softer  kinds  of  cheese  and  the  fatty  parts  of  hams  or  bacon  are 
the  favorite  breeding  places  of  minute,  slender  maggots  that  have  a 
way  of  curling  the  body  and  then  suddenly  straightening  it,  so  that 
they  throw  themselves  some  little  distance.  They  are  the  larvae  of 
very  small,  grayish  flies. 

Infested  materials  should  be  removed,  and  shelving  or  bins  given  a 
thorough  cleaning,  for  the  maggots  will  develop  in  very  small  quantities 
of  grease  or  other  suitable  material.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
fumigate,  in  order  to  kill  the  adult  flies  that  are  in  hiding. 

The  Angoumois  Grain-moth  (Sitotroga  cerealella  Oliv.) 

In  the  Southern  states  stored  grain  is  severely  attacked  by  a  very 
small  grub  which  starts  work  within  the  kernels  in  the  field,  and  con- 
tinues its  depredations  after  the  grain  is  harvested  and  stored.     The 


Fig.  564. — Work  of  the  Angoumois  Grain-moth.     Original. 


GRAIN-MOTHS 


359 


outward  evidence  of  its  work  is  seen  in  tiny,  round  holes  through  the 
hard  outer  coating  of  the  grain,  showing  where  adults  have  emerged. 
Frequently  the  adult  moths,  small,  buff-colored  "  millers,"  are  notice- 
ably abundant,  especially  at  threshing  time. 

There  are  half  a  dozen  or  more  generations  in  the  course  of  the  year. 
The  earliest  moths  in  spring  at  once  fly  to  the  grain  fields  and  two  or 

three  generations 

are  reared  in  the 

growing  kernels. 

The     grubs     of 

the  last  are  har- 
vested along  with 

the    grain,    and 

the  work  goes  on 


Fig.  565.  —  Larvae  of 
the         Angoumois 

Grain-moth.      En-  as  long  as  warm    Fig.  566.— The  Angoumois   Grain- 

larged  to  twice  nat-  weather     lasts.        moth.     Enlarged  and  natural  size. 


ural  size.   Original. 


Original. 


Corn  usually  be- 
comes infested  only  after  being  husked,  the  moths  flying  to  it  and 
laying  eggs  on  it. 

In  control,  grain  should  be  threshed  as  soon  as  harvested.  It  should 
be  stored  in  tight  bins,  watched  carefully,  and  if  it  heats,  indicating 
the  presence  of  the  pest,  should  be  fumigated  at  once  with  carbon 

bisulphide.  Corn  husked  late  and 
placed  in  open  cribs  out  doors 
seldom  becomes  infested. 


The  European  Grain-moth  {Tinea 
granella  Linn.) 

A  tiny  moth,  with  brown  and 
white  spotted  wings,  lays  its  eggs 
on  developing  grains  in  the  field,  its 
minute  grubs  feeding  within  the 
kernels  in  similar  fashion  to  the 
It    continues   to   breed  in  stored  grains, 


Fig.  567. —  The  European  Grain- 
moth.  Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


Angoumois   grain  moth 

just  as  does  the  other  insect  named,  but  its  work  may  readily  be 


360       PESTS    OF   THE  HOUSEHOLD   AND   STORED   PRODUCTS 

distinguished  from  the  fact  that  there  is  always  more  or  less  webbing 
over  the  grain.     Remedies  consist  in  prompt  threshing,  storing  in 

tight  bins,  and  fumigation  with  car- 
bon bisulphide  as  soon  as  the  presence 
of  the  pest  is  discovered. 


The    Mediterranean   Flour    Moth 

{Ephestia  kuehniella  Zell.) 

This  imported  pest  now  ranks  as 
one  of  the  most  destructive  and 
troublesome  of  the  insects  infesting 
stored  flour,  bran,  buckwheat,  crack- 
ers, and  cereal  foods.  It  is  the  im- 
mature stage  of  a  dull  gray  moth,  expanding  about  one  inch.  The 
full   grown  larva  is  a  half  inch  long,  white,   ornamented  with  fine 


Fig.  568.  —  Empty  pupal  skin  of 
the  European  Grain-moth.  En- 
larged and  natural  size.  Orig- 
inal. 


Fig.  569. — Work  of  the  Mediterranean  Flour  Moth.     Original. 


black  dots,  and  sparsely  covered  with  hairs.      It  feeds  within  a  silk 
tube,  and  spins  quantities  of  silk  wherever  it  goes,  especially  when 


FLOUR    MOTHS 


361 


traveling  about  before  pupation,  with  the  result  that  the  material  in 
which  it  is  at  work  is  matted  together  and  rendered  valueless.  In 
most  situations,  breeding  goes  on  continuously. 

Remedies    consist   of   fumigation 
with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.     Treat- 


FiG.  570.  —  Larva  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean Flour  Moth.  Slightly  enlarged. 
Original. 


Fig.  571. —  The  Mediterranean 
Flour  Moth.  Slightly  enlarged. 
Original. 


ment  by  heat  is  now  gaining  in  favor,  and  promises  to  be  a  valuable 
method.     This  treatment  is  described  under  the  following  insect. 


The  Indian-meal  Moth  {Plodia  interpunctella  Hbn.) 

Stored  grains  and  flours  of  many  kinds  frequently  become  infested 
with  the  larvse  of  this  tiny  moth,  which  travel  here  and  there  through 
the  grain  or  meal,* eating  as  they  go,  and  always  spinning  quantities 
of  web  with  which  will  be  found  mixed  the  castings  of  the  worms. 
The  larva  is  about  a  half  inch  long, 
whitish  or  pale  pink  or  greenish. 

In  heated  warehouses  breeding  may 

go  on  throughout  the  year.     The  adult 

is  a  small  moth,  expanding  one  half  to 

three  fourths  of  an  inch,  the  fore  wings 

reddish  brown  in  their  outer  parts,  the  F^«-    ^^2.  —  The     Indian-meal 

,  •     ,     ^.  Moth.     Larva.     Slightly    en- 

^    ^     ^'  larged.     Original. 
In  elevators  or  warehouses  that  are 

heated  by  steam  the  pest  may  be  treated  successfully  by  heat.      If 

the  temperature  throughout  the  building  can  be  raised  to  120  degrees 

Fahrenheit,  and  maintained  at  that  point  for  6  hours,  practically  all 


362       PESTS    OF   THE  HOUSEHOLD   AND   STORED   PRODUCTS 


Fig.  573. — Adult  of  the  Indian-meal  Moth.     Enlarged  and  natural  size. 

Original. 


of  the  insects  will  be  killed.  Some  additional  piping  may  be  necessary 
in  order  to  accomplish  this,  but  usually  the  cost  is  justified  by  the 
results,  and  the  improvement,  once  made,  is  permanent. 

The  pest  may  be  killed  by 
fumigation  with  carbon  bi- 
sulphide or  hydrocyanic  acid 
gas. 

The  Meal  Snout-moth  {Pyralis 
farinalis  Linn.) 

The    habits    of    this    species 
resemble  those  of   the   Indian- 
meal  moth.     The  larvae  work  in 
grains  or  grain  products,  such 
as  flour,  bran,  or  meal,  and  spin 
long  tubes  of  silk,  ruining  more  than  they  consume.     There  are  three 
or  four  generations  annually  under  favorable  conditions. 
Treatment  is  the  same  as  for  the  preceding  species. 


Fig.  574.  —  Larvte  and  pupa  of  the  Meal 
Snout-moth.  Slightly  enlarged.  Orig- 
inal. 


BEETLES    AND     WEEVILS 


363 


Fig.    575.  —  The      Meal      Snout-moth. 
Slightly  enlarged.     Original. 


Fig.  576.  —  The   Granary  Wee- 
vil.  Enlarged  and  natiiral  size. 

Original. 


Fig.  578.  — The  Rice  Weevil. 
Enlarged  and  natural  size. 
Original. 


Fig.  579. —  The  Confused  Flour 
Beetle.  Enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original. 


364       PESTS^  OF   THE   HOUSEHOLD   AND   STORED   PRODUCTS 


Fig.  580.  —  The  Saw-Toothed 
Grain  Beetle.  Enlarged  and 
natural  size.     Original. 


Beetles  and  Weevils  in  Stored  Products 

Stored  grain  and  other  stored  products  are  subject  to  infestation 
by  many  species  of  small  beetles.  In  most  cases  the  greater  part  of  the 
injury  is  due  to  the  feeding  of  ''  grubs,"  which  are  the  immature  stages 

of  the  pest  concerned,  but  since  the 
grubs  often  work  concealed,  while  the 
adults  are  active  and  visible,  the  latter 
are  the  stages  commonly  noted.  Some 
of  the  species  most  likely  to  be  observed 
are  the  following: 

The  Granary  Weevil  (Calandra  gra- 
naria  Linn.).  A  brown  snout-beetle,  one 
seventh  of  an  inch  long.     Infests  stored 
grains,  especially  wheat,  corn,  and  bar- 
ley.    The  wings  are  not  functional,  and  the  insect  cannot  fly. 

The  Rice  Weevil  {Calandra  oryza  Linn.).  A  dark  brown  snout-beetle 
with  two  obscure,  slightly  lighter  markings  on  each  wing  cover. 
Attacks  stored  grains  ;  also  such 
manufactured  products  as  crackers, 
flour,  and  the  like.     The  adult  can 

fly. 

The  Confused  Flour  Beetle  (Tri- 
holium  conjusum  Duv.).  A  flat,  brown 
beetle,  one  sixth  of  an  inch  long. 
A  destructive  pest  of  flour,  cereal 
foods,  and  grains. 

The  Rust-red  Flour  Beetle  {Tri- 
holium  navale  Fab . ) .  Closely  resembles 
the  preceding  species.     The  same  feeding  habits. 

The  Saw-toothed  Grain  Beetle  (Silvanus  surinamensis  Linn.).  A 
slender,  dark  brown  beetle,  its  thorax  edged  with  short  teeth.  Found 
in  all  kinds  of  foodstuffs. 

The  Cadelle  ( Tenebroides  maiiritanicus  Linn.) .  A  black,  oblong  beetle, 
one  third  of  an  inch  in  length.     The  larva  whitish,  fleshy,  tapering 


Fig.  581.  — The  Cadelle.  En- 
larged and  natural  size.  Orig- 
inal. 


WEEVILS 


365 


somewhat  toward  each  end,  three  fourths  of  an  inch  long.  Feeds  on 
the  germ  of  grains.     Adults  and  larvae  also  predaceous. 

For  all  of  these  pests  the  surest  treatment  is  fumigation  with  carbon 
bisulphide  or  carbon  tetrachloride.  They  may  be  killed,  also,  by  heat- 
ing the  material  in  which  they  are  at  work  to  a  temperature  of  125  to 
140  degrees  for  three  or  four  hours. 

When  foodstuffs  in  houses  are  infested,  a  thorough  cleaning  out  of 
the  storage  places  is  necessary,  together  with  proper  treatment  of  the 
materials  affected.  In  addition  all  cracks  and  cre\dces  should  be 
sprayed  wi^h  gasoline,  taking  proper  precautions  to  guard  against 
fire. 

The  Bean  Weevil  {Acanthoscelides  {Bruchus)  obtectus  Say) 

Dried  beans  that  have  been  gathered  and  stored  for  winter  use  are 
injured  or  destroyed  by  this  insect.     Many  beans  will  be  found  showing 


Fig.  582. — Work  of  the  Bean  Weevil.     Original. 


round  holes  where  the  adult  weevils  have  emerged,  others  will  have 
grubs  still  at  work  inside,  and  in  the  box  or  bin  will  be  found  numerous 


366       PESTS    OF    THE  HOUSEHOLD   AND    STORED   PRODUCTS 

small,  mottled,  brownish  beetles,  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  long, 
their  wing  covers  a  little  shorter  than  their  bodies. 

Infestation  may  have  been  carried  over  from  old  beans  left  in  the  box 
from  last  season's  crop,  for  the  insect  continues  to  breed  through  the 
year  in  stored  beans.  Or  the  eggs  may  have  been  laid  in  the  beans 
while  still  on  the  ^dnes  in  the  field,  the  beetles  being  abroad  on  the  wing 
in  late  summer. 

Fumigation  with  carbon  bisulphide  or  carbon  tetrachloride  is  the 
best  treatment,  and  should  be  applied  as  soon  as  beans  are  gathered. 
Infested  beans  should  not  be  planted  for  seed. 


Fig.  583.  — The  Bean  Weevil. 
Adult,  enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original. 


Fig.  584. —  The  Cowpea 
Weevil.  Enlarged  and 
natural  size.     Original. 


The  Cowpea  Weevil  {Pachymerus  (Bruchus)  chinensis  L.) 

Stored  beans,  peas,  and  cowpeas  are  attacked  by  this  weevil.  In 
most  particulars  its  life  round  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  bean  weevil. 
It  continues  to  breed  in  the  stored  seed. 

Treatment  consists  in  fumigation  with  carbon  bisulphide  or  carbon 
tetrachloride. 


The  Four-spotted  Bean  Weevil  (Pachymerus  (Bruchus)  quadrimacu- 

latus  Fab.) 

Still  another  weevil  working  in  dried  beans  and  peas  is  the  four- 
spotted  bean  weevil.    While  the  adult  differs  somewhat  from  the  pre- 


WEEVILS 


367 


Fig.  585.  —  Work  of  the  Four-spotted  Bean  Weevil.     Original. 


ceding  in  shape  and  markings,  its  habits  and  hfe  history  are  practically 
the  same.  It  lays  eggs  in  the  field,  but  also  continues  to  breed  in  the 
dried,  stored  product. 

The  treatment  is 
fumigation  with  carbon 
bisulphide  or  carbon 
tetrachloride. 


Fig.  5hG.  —  The  Four- 
spotted  Bean  Weevil. 
Enlarged  and  natural 
size.     Original. 


Fig.  587.  —  Work  of  the  Pea  Weevil.     Original. 


368 


FESTS    OF    THE   HOUSEHOLD   AND    STORED   PRODUCTS 


The  Pea  Weevil  {Laria  (Bruchus)  pisorum  L.) 

The  adult  pea  weevil  is  similar  in  appearance  to  the  bean  weevil, 
but  is  a  little  larger  and  has  a  shorter  thorax.  The  grubs  live  in 
peas,  hatching  from  eggs  laid  on  the  pods  early  in  the  season  by  the 

adults,  while  the  peas  are  still  in 
the  field.  Unlike  the  bean  weevil 
this  pest  never  goes  on  breeding  in 
the  dried,  stored  product. 

The  grubs  are  in  the  peas  when 
they  are  gathered.  In  the  South 
the  adults  emerge  before  the  next 
planting  time,  but  in  the  North  the 
insect  is  still  in  the  seed  when  it  is 
planted. 

Emergence  of  the  adults  may  be 

accelerated  by  keeping  the  peas  in 

a  warm  place.      Seed  may  be  held 

over  for  a  season.     The  best  treatment,  however,  is  fumigation  with 

carbon  bisulphide  or  carbon  tetrachloride. 


Fig.  588.  — The  Pea  Weevil.      En- 
larged and  natural  size.   Original. 


Weevils  in  Nuts 

The  white,  thick  grubs  often  found  in  chestnuts,  pecans,  and  hickory 
nuts  are  familiar  to  all.  Their  exit  holes  also,  where  the  mature  grub 
has  cut  its  way  out  through  the  shell,  are  commonly  recognized. 

The  adults  of  these  grubs  are  beetles,  one  fourth  to  one  third  inch 
long,  yellowish  in  general  color  with  darker  markings,  and  charac- 
terized by  an  extremely  long  snout,  slender  as  a  pin.  Biting  jaws  are 
located  at  the  end  of  the  snout. 

There  are  three  species  concerned :  the  Larger  Chestnut  Weevil 
(Balaninus  prohoscideus  Fab.) ;  the  Chestnut  Weevil  (Balaninus 
rectus  Say) ;  and  the  Pecan,  or  Hickory  Nut  Weevil  {Balaninus 
caryce  Horn.).  All  are  similar  in  appearance,  and  their  habits  are 
much  the  same. 

Direct  means  of  control  of  these  pests  in  the  field  is  not  possible. 


NUT-WEEVILS  —  MEAL  WORM 


369 


The  adults  come  out  from  the  ground  in  spring,  and  continue  emerging 
throughout  the  summer.  When  the  nuts  are  large  enough,  they  punc- 
ture them  through  the  husk  or 
burr  with  their  long  snouts,  and 
la}^  their  eggs  within.  The 
grubs  mature  usually  soon  after 
the  nuts  fall,  eat  their  way 
out,  and  winter  in  the  soil. 

Xuts  should  be  gathered 
regularly  and  at  frequent  in- 
tervals. In  the  case  of  chest- 
nuts it  is  wise  to  fumigate  with 
carbon  bisulphide  immediately  after  gathering.  The  gas  will  pene- 
trate the  nuts  and  kill  the  weevils,  some  of  which  will  be  so  small  that 
they  have  not  yet  damaged  the  kernel  appreciably. 


^^p^n^^H 

■Hi^^ 

m^ 

n 

HfllMfll 

^^^H 

Fig. 


589.  — Work   of    the   Hickory  Nut 
Weevil.     Original. 


The  Yellow  Mealworm  {Tenebrio  molitor  Linn.) 

Corn  meal  or  similar  material  is  often  infested  with  yellowish  or 
brownish  worms,  an  inch  long  when  full  grown,  their  backs  shining  and 
''  hard-shelled,"  looking  somewhat  like  wireworms.     The  adult  is  a 


Fig.  590.  —  The  Yellow  Mealworm. 
Slightly  enlarged.     Original. 


Fig.  591.— Adult  of  the 
Yellow  Mealworm. 

SHghtly  enlarged.   Orig- 
inal. 


dark,  oblong  beetle,  which  flies  at  night,  and  lays  eggs  wherever  it 
can  find  suitable  material.     Treatment  consists  in  a  thorough  cleaning 
up  of  waste  meal,  combined  with  fumigation  or  heating  of  infested 
lots.     There  is  only  one  generation  annually. 
2b 


370       PJESTS    OF    THE   HOUSEHOLD   AND    STORED   PRODUCTS 


The   Cigarette  Beetle  (Lasioderma  serricorne  Fab.) 
Stored  tobacco,  and  various  other  stored  products,  often  become 
infested  with  this  pest.     The  larvae  is  a  white,  fleshy,  tiny  grub.     The 
adult  is  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch  long,  brownish,  its  head  bent  back 

under  its  thorax.  The 
larvae  feed  here  and  there 
through  their  food  sub- 
stance, and  the  beetles 
make  small  round  holes  in 


Fig.  592.  —  Work  and  larva  of  the  Cigarette 
Beetle.     Enlarged.     Original. 


Fig.  593.  —  The  Cigarette 
Beetle.  Adult,  enlarged  and 
natural  size.     Original. 


emerging.  There  are  several  generations  annually  under  suitable 
conditions.  Warehouses  that  have  become  infested  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleane<:l  up,  and  then  fumigated  with  carbon  bisulphide  or 
hydrocj^anic  acid  gas. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

Insect  Pests  of  Domestic  Animals 

Many  different  species  of  insects  live  as  parasites  on  or  in  domestic 
animals.  Some  of  these  have  totally  different  habits  and  character- 
istics; and  thus  the  treatment  for  one  will  not  always  answer  for 
another.  But  between  many  species  only  minor  differences  exist. 
The  commoner  and  more  typical  forms  will  be  given  here. 


The  Horse  Bot-fly  (Gastrophilus  equi  Fab.) 

In  its  larval  stage  this  insect  is  an  internal  parasite  within  the 
stomach  of  the  horse,  where  it  lives  attached  to  the  walls.  It  injures 
the  animal  by  interfering 
with  digestion  and  by  the 
irritation  set  up  by  its  pres- 
ence. 

The    adult    fly    frequents 
horses    throughout    midsum- 


FiG.  594.  —  Larvae  of  the  Horse 
Bot-fly.  Slightly  enlarged. 
Original. 


Fig.  595.  — Eggs  of  the  Horse  Bot-fly, 
attached  to  hairs.  Enlarged  and  nat- 
ural size.     Original. 

371 


372 


PESTS    OF    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS 


mer,  and  fastens  its  eggs  to  the  hairs  of  the  animal's  shoulders  or 
fore  legs.     The  eggs  are  yellowish  in  color  and  plainly  visible.     They 

are  hatched  by  the  action  of  the  ani- 
mal's tongue  in  licking  itself,  and  are 
carried  by  the  tongue  to  the  mouth, 
whence  they  reach  the  stomach.  When 
full  grown,  the  larvae  pass  out  and 
pupate  in  the  soil. 

Examine   the  stock  once  every  two 
weeks  during  summer,  and  if  eggs  are 
found,  shave  them  off  with  a  sharp  knife 
or  moisten  them  with  kerosene,  or  with 
Fig.  596.— The  Horse  Bot-fly.     ^  solution  of  carboHc  acid  1  part,  water 
Slightly  enlarged.     Original.         30  parts. 


The  Sheep  Bot-fly  {(Estrus  ovis  Linn.) 

The  maggots  of  this  species  develop  in  the  upper  nasal  passages  of 
sheep,  sometimes  penetrating  the  brain.  Living  young  are  deposited 
in  the  nostrils  by  the  adult  flies  in 
June  and  July.  The  mature  mag- 
gots work  their  way  out  through 
the  nostrils  after  ten  months  and 
pupate  in  the  ground. 

Finely  powdered  lime  is  used  to 
induce  sneezing,  so  as  to  dislodge 
the  maggots.  The  same  result  is 
secured  by  dipping  a  feather  in  tur- 
pentine and  running  it  up  the  nos- 
trils. A  mixture  of  tar  and  grease 
or  other  repellent  may  be  smeared  on  the  nose  to  keep  off  the  adult 
flies,  but  is  not  entirely  effectual. 


Fig.  597.  — Larva  of  the  Sheep  Bot- 
fly.   Slightly  enlarged.    Original. 


The  Ox  Warble  (Hypodernia  lineata  Villers) 

The  ox  warble  is  a  species  of  bot-fly,  which  spends  the  latter  part 
of  its  larval  stage  as  a  fleshy,  footless  grub  beneath  the  skin  of  the  back. 


INTERNAL    PARASITES 


373 


A  hole  is  made  through  the  sldn  by  which  the  grub  gets  air.  These 
holes  are  a  source  of  great  loss  in  dressed  hides,  and  the  presence  of  the 
grub  causes  irritation  and  often  loss  of  weight  or  of  milk  flow  in  the 
infested  animal. 

The  adult  is  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  honey-bee,  but  has  only 
two  wings  instead  of  four.  The  sides  of  its  head  and  thorax  are  marked 
with  white,  and  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  thorax  are  four  shining 
raised  lines.     The  base  of  the  abdomen  is  whitish. 

Eggs  are  laid  in  early  summer  attached  to  hairs  near  the  heels  of  the 
animal.  The  egg  opens  as  the  animal  licks  its  heels,  and  the  young 
grub  is  carried  by  the  tongue  to  the 
mouth.  It  at  once  penetrates  the 
walls  of  the  throat  and  for  several 
months  is  in  the  connective  tissue 
along  the  back  of  the  neck  and  else- 
where. Finally  it  settles  under  the 
skin  of  the  back,  and  makes  its  breath- 
ing hole  through  the  hide.  When 
mature,  it  drops  to  the  ground,  where 
it  remains  until  the  next  spring. 

The  presence  of  the  grub  results  in  damage  to  the  beef,  gi\ang  it  a 
slimy  appearance.     In  addition  the  hide  is  injured. 

Fhes  will  not  lay  eggs  on  animals  that  are  standing  in  water.  In 
smaU  herds  strong-smelling  oils  may  be  smeared  on  the  lower  part 
of  the  legs,  and  will  act  as  deterrents.  A  mixture  sometimes  recom- 
mended consists  of  sulphur,  4  ounces;  spirits  of  tar,  1  gill;  train  oil 
(whale  oil),  1  quart.  As  a  rule  the  adult  flies  do  not  enter  stables 
or  attack  animals  under  shelter. 

The  grubs  under  the  skin  are  best  removed  by  pressing  each  side 
of  the  hole  until  the  end  of  the  grub  protrudes,  and  drawing  it  out  with 
tweezers. 

The  best  time  to  do  this  is  in  February  or  March.  The  grubs  can 
be  located  by  passing  the  hand  along  the  back.  If  the  grubs  are  thus 
removed,  the  flesh  beneath  wiU  heal  and  the  hole  will  close  within  a 
short  time. 


Fig 


598.  —  Larva    of    the 
Warble.     Original. 


374 


PESTS    OF    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS 


The  Screw-worm  '{Ckrysomyia  macellaria  Fab.) 
Exposed  wounds  or  even  the  bites  of  ticks  form  the  breeding  ground 
of  the  whitish  maggots  of  this  species.     Eggs  are  laid  in  large  numbers 

in  such  places  by  the  adult  fly, 
and  the  young  burrow  in  the 
surrounding  tissues,  later  enter- 
ing the  ground  to  transform. 
There  may  be  several  genera- 
tions annually. 

Prompt  treatment  of  chance 

wounds,  and  dipping  to  kill  or 

prevent    ticks,     are    the    best 

Fig.  599.  —  The  Screw- worm  Fly.     En-    measures     to     adopt.       In     the 

larged  and  natural  size.     Original.  treatment  of  WOUnds  a  solution 

of  carbolic  acid,  1  part,  water,  30  parts,  is  excellent,  followed  by  a 

dressing  of  pine  tar. 

Sucking  Lice  on  Domestic  Animals 

The  larger  animals,  including  cattle,  horses,  swine,  and  others, 
are  often  infested  with  sucking  lice,  which  frequently  cause  great 
irritation.     Several  species  are  conmion. 

The  Short-nosed  Ox  Louse  {Hmmato- 
pinus  eurysternns  Nitzsch)  is  slaty  in 
color,  one  eighth  to  one  fifth  of  an  inch 
long  and  about  half  as  broad.  Usually  it 
is  most  troublesome  on  the  neck  and 
shoulders. 

The  Long-nosed  Ox  Louse  {Hoematopinus 
vituli  Linn.)  is  slender,  one  eighth  of  an 
inch  long.    Its  head  is  distinctly  elongated. 

The   Hog  Louse    ( Hcematopinus    urius 

Nitzsch)  is  gray,  one  fourth  of   an   inch 

long,    the    body    broadly    elliptical,    the 

u     A  T5   ji      •    /    .   ^      •       f  ^^  ,        Fig.  600.  —  The  Short-nosed 

head  narrow.     Badly  mfested  pigs  fail  to        q^  Louse.    Enlarged  and 

make  proper  gains  in  weight.  natural  size.    Original. 


LICE  —  TICKS  —  MITES 


375 


For  all  of  these  pests,  treatment  consists  in  the  application  of  suit- 
able contact  insecticides,  which  may  be  kerosene  emulsion,  tobacco 
extract,  or  various  ointments.  Kerosene  emulsion 
should  be  prepared  by  diluting  the  stock  emulsion 
with  8  or  10  parts  of  water.  ''  Black  leaf  40,"  or 
''  nicotine  sulphate,"  is  diluted  at  the  rate  of  1  part 
to  800  of  water. 


Biting  Lice  on  Domestic  Animals 

Various  species  of  flat-bodied,  broad-headed, 
biting  lice  infest  the  larger  animals.  They  feed 
on  the  rough  parts  of  the  skin  and  on  the  hairs, 
and  cause  considerable  irritation,  though  they  do 
not  suck  the  blood.  Commonly  they  are  spoken 
of  as  the  "  little  red  lice,"  as  distinguished  from 
the  bluish  sucking  lice.  All  are  members  of  the 
genus  Trichodedes.  T.  scalaris  Nitz.  infests  cattle ; 
Piag.  is  common  on  the  horse; 
the  sheep. 

Washes  of  kerosene  emulsion  or  tobacco  extract  are  effective,  as 
described  for  sucking  lice. 


Fig.  601.— The 
Long-nosed  Ox 
Louse.  Enlarged 
and  natural  size. 
Original. 

T.  parumpilosiis 
T.  spfuerocephalus  Nitz.  is  found  on 


The  Cattle- tick  (Margaropus  annulatus  Say) 
Throughout  many  of  the  Southern  states  cattle  are  subject  to  a 
fever  which  is  transmitted  by  a  tick.  Enormous  losses  are  caused 
each  year  by  the  work  of  this  pest.  The  tick 
which  serves  as  a  carrier  for  this  disease  is  a 
dark-bodied,  eight-legged  creature,  and  goes 
through  a  peculiar  life  round.  The  adult 
engorged  female  drops  from  the  cattle  to  the 
ground  and  lays  its  eggs.  These  hatch  into 
''seed  ticks,"   which  then  crawl  up  on  the 

nearest  herbage  and  wait  for  cattle  to  come 
Fig.  602.  — The  Cattle-        ,  ^  ,       i  •       ,   i      x     ^u 

tick.  Shghtly  enlarged.     ^^^^^-     ^^^^  ^ack  on  an  animal  host,  they 
Original.  go  through  their  Ufe  round  to  adult. 


376  FESTS    OF    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS 

Control  is  based  on  keeping  cattle  out  of  tick-infested  pastures  long 
enough  to  starve  out  all  the  seed  ticks.  The  latter  do  not  go  in  search 
of  a  host,  but  wait  for  it  to  come.  Luckily  this  scheme  works  in  well 
with  various  desirable  crop  rotations. 

In  the  case  of  range  animals,  dipping  or  spraying  to  kill  the  ticks 
on  the  animal  is  resorted  to. 


The  Sheep  Tick  {Melophagus  ovinus  Linn.) 

Degenerate,  reddish  or  brownish,  flattened  insects,  one  fourth  of  an 
inch  long  or  less,  suck  the  blood  of  sheep  and  lambs.    They  are  especially 

injurious  to  the  latter.  The  pest  is  most 
numerous  in  the  spring  months.  The 
entire  life  round  is  spent  on  the  sheep. 
While  this  species  belongs  in  the  order 
of  flies,  the  adults  are  entirely  wingless. 

Sheep  should  be  dipped  after  shearing. 
Various  substances  are  on  the  market  for 
this  purpose.  Or,  one  of  the  commercial 
tobacco  extracts  may  be  used,  following 

Fiu.    (HKi.-Thc    Shoei)    Tick.      .,.,,.  .    ,     ,  ,,  ,    . 

Enlarged   and  natural  size.    ;the  mstructions  printed  on  the  contamer 
Original.  in  which  the  material  is  sold. 


The  Sheep  Scab-mite  (Psoroptes  communis  Furst,  var.  ovis) 

Small,  sucking  mites  breed  in  large  numbers  under  scales  or  crusts 
formed  on  the  skin  of  sheep.  There  is  violent  itching,  and  the 
wool  looks  rough  and  ragged,  often  sticking  together  in  places, 
or  falling  entirely  out.  Attack  is  usually  confined  to  the  neck,  back, 
and  rump,  the  under  parts  being  more  or  less  free  of  the  mites. 
The  mites  are  exceedingly  small,  and  swarm  around  the  edges  of  the 
scabs. 

Dipping  of  infested  animals  is  the  only  thorough  remedy.  The 
same  materials  are  used  as  in  dipping  for  the  sheep  tick,  the  one  dip 
serving  to  kill  both  insects. 


LICE    AND    MITES    ON    POULTRY 


377 


Biting  Lice  on  Poultry 

Several  different  species  of  biting  lice  affect  poultry,  including  the 
genera  Menopo7i,  Lipeurus,  and  others.  They  var}^  in  particular 
characteristics,  but  all  are  alike  in  the  fact  that  they  do  not  suck  the 
blood  of  their  host,  but  cause  injury 
by  eating  the  surface  of  the  skin  and 
the  finer  parts  of  the  feathers,  and 
by  the  tiny  pricks  of  their  sharp 
claws  as  they  move  about  over  their 
host.  On  young  chicks  their  irrita- 
tion may  readily  prove  fatal. 

The  eggs  or  "  nits  "  are  laid  on 
the  feathers,  and  in  warm  weather 
hatch  in  ten  days.  Both  young  and 
adults  are  apt  to  be  especially  active 
at  night,  crawling  over  the  perches 
and  moving  from  one  fowl  to 
another. 

Treatment  must  include  both  the  poultry  house  and  the  fowls  in 
order  to  be  entirely  effective.  The  latter  may  be  dusted  with  a  mix- 
ture of  10  pounds  of  sulphur  to  |  bushel  of  air-slaked  lime.  The 
same  material  may  be  used  in  the  house,  taking  care  to  get  it  into  all 
cracks,  and  mixing  it  with  the  dust  bath.  A  more  effective  measure 
for  the  house  is  spraying  with  lime-sulphur  solution  or  10  per  cent 
kerosene  emulsion.  Treatment  of  the  fowls  should  be  repeated  at 
the  end  of  a  week  or  ten  days. 


Fig.  604.  —  A  Chicken  Louse,  Li- 
-peurus  variabilis.  Enlarged  and 
natural  size.     Original. 


The  Chicken  Mite  {Dermanyssus  gallince  Redi.) 

Several  species  of  mites  attack  poultry,  but  the  commonest  is  the 
one  here  described.  It  is  a  minute,  eight-legged  creature,  one  twentieth 
of  an  inch  long,  normally  grayish  in  color  but  appearing  red  when  filled 
with  blood.     It  has  sucking  mouth  parts. 

Eggs  are  laid  in  droppings  or  in  places  where  dirt  has  accumulated, 
and  the  j^oung  feed  at  first  on  such  substances.     Later  they  crawl  on 


378  PESTS    OF    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS 

hens  or  young  chicks,  but  they  do  not  remain  on  them  all  the  time, 
usually  feeding  only  at  night  or  when  a  hen  is  on  a  nest,  and  hiding  in 
cracks  in  the  henhouse  during  daytime.  Often  they  will  be  found 
during  the  day  clustered  in  little  colonies  on  the  under  side  of  perches, 
especially  in  crevices  in  the  wood. 

In  control  the  first  measure  is  a  thorough  cleaning  up  of  the  poultry 
house.     Then  spray  the  interior  with  lime-sulphur  solution  or  with 
20    per    cent    kerosene    emulsion.      The    spraying 
treatment  should  be  repeated  after  a  few  days. 

The  Itch  Mite  of  Poultry  {Cnemidocoptes  mutans 
Robin.) 

This  pest  is  related  to  the  common  chicken  mite, 
but  attacks  rather  the  legs,  the  comb,  or  the  neck, 

^^i  •  ,     '~^.-  ^    where  it  burrows  under  the  skin,  causing  a  scaly 

Chicken     Mite.  '  *  -^ 

Enlarged      and     Crust  to  form. 

natural       size.        Dry,    sunny    quarters    should   be    provided    for 

Original.  fowls  attacked.     The  legs  or  other  affected  parts 

should  be  washed  in  warm  soap  and  water,  followed  by  the  appli- 
cation of  a  suitable  ointment,  which  should  be  one  containing 
sulphur. 

Another  species,  Cnemidocoptes  gallince  Railliet,  causes  such  irrita- 
tion that  the  fowls  pull  out  their  feathers ;  or  the  feathers  break  off. 
A  whitish,  powdery  substance  will  be  found  in  the  base  of  the  quills, 
and  in  this  the  lice  live. 

Give  the  same  treatment  as  for  the  other  itch  mite,  just  described. 

The  Cuban  Hen  Flea  {Argopsijlla  gallinacea  West.) 

In  the  Southern  states  this  species  of  flea  seriously  infests  fowls 
and  sometimes  is  a  nuisance  to  man.  On  fowls,  the  fleas  collect  in 
large  numbers  on  spots  bare  of  feathers,  such  as  the  comb  or  wattles, 
bury  their  sucking  mouth  parts  in  the  flesh,  and  stick  so  tight  that 
they  can  hardly  be  dislodged.  The  young  develop  in  waste  matter 
in  the  nest  or  on  the  ground. 

The  remedies  are  suitable  ointments  or  washes. 


BITING   FLIES 


379 


Horseflies,  or  "Gadflies"  {Tabanidce) 
Horses  and  cattle,  and  often  other  animals  as  well,  are  persecuted 
by  various  species  of  large,  two-winged  flies,  which  alight  on  the  head, 
neck,  back,  or  flanks,  and  torment  the  animals  by  piercing  the  skin  and 
sucking  the  blood.  The  pests  are  capable  of  causing  noticeable  loss  of 
flesh,  not  to  mention  the  unpleasant  effects  on  the  animal's  disposition. 
These  flies  have  no  connection  with  the  bots  or  grubs  found  in  the 
stomach  of  the  horse  or  under  the  skin  of  the  back  of  cattle.  Their 
sole  injury  is  that  caused  by  their  bites.  Their  young  live  in  pools 
or  running  streams,  and  their  eggs  are  laid  on  leaves  or  twigs  over- 
hanging the  water. 

Various  oils  may  be  applied  to  the  animals,  to  drive  away  the  flies. 
One  method  is  to  spray  them  with  kerosene  emulsion,  diluting  the 
stock  with  10  parts  of  water. 

The   Horn-fly  {Lyperosia  irritans  Linn.,  formerly  Hcematobia  serrata) 
The  horn-fly  is  a  biting  insect  about  the  size  of  a  common  house  fly 

but  more  slender,  and  injures  cattle  by  swarming  on  them  in  large 

numbers,  biting  and   annoying 

them  severely.    The  fly  gets  its 

name  from  its  habit  of  resting 

in  clusters  around  the  base  of 

the   horns,  where  it  cannot  be 

dislodged  by  its  host.     It  does 

not  feed  at  this  point  particu- 
larly, but  rather  on  the  flanks, 

bellj^,  and  wherever  opportunity 

offers. 

There  are  several  generations 

annually.    The  larva  is  a  small  maggot,  and  lives  in  moist,  fresh  dung. 
If  all  dung  is  collected  frequently  and  spread  out  to  dry,  the  maggots 

will  be  killed.     Cattle  may  be  protected  by  repellents,  among  which 

fish  oil  or  train  oil  is  the  best.     Kerosene  emulsion,  applied  with  a 

spray  pump,  will  kill  such  flies  as  it  hits,  and  will  give  protection  for 

two  or  three  days. 


606.  —  The  Horn-fly.    Enlarged  and 
natural  size.     Original. 


REFERENCES 

For  general  accounts  of  the  writings  in  Economic  Entomology,  and 
for  lists  of  publications,  see  Bulletins  40  and  81  of  the  Bureau  of  Ento- 
mology, United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Detailed  accounts  of  the  insects  considered  in  this  book  will  be  found 
in  the  following  bulletins  and  reports. 

Abbreviations 

Bur.  Ent.=Bureau  of  Entomology,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

Exp.  Sta.=The  various  State  Experiment  Stations. 

Rpt.  State  Ent.=  Annual  Reports  of  the  various  State  Entomologists. 

Farmers'  Bull.  =  Farmers'  Bulletin,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

Acanthoscelides  obtectus.  Yearbook,  U.S.D.A.,  1898,  page  239. 
Acrididoe,  23  Rpt.  111.  State  Ent.,  page  136. 
Acronycta  oblinita,  4th  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  pages  155-157. 
^geria  rutilans,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  23. 

.^geria  tipuliforinis,  4th  Rpt.  Minn.   State  Ent.,  pages  60-64. 
Agrilus  ruficollis,  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  Special  Bull.  N. 
Agriotes  mancus,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  27. 
Agromyza  simplex,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  66-1. 
Alabama  argillacea,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  153. 
Aleurodes  citri,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  92. 
Aleurodes  vaporariorum,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  92. 
Allorhina  nitida,  23d  Rpt.  111.  State  Ent.,  page  101. 
Alsophila  pometarin,  Rpt.  Conn.  State  Ent.,  1908,  page  777. 
Alypia  odomaculata,  4th  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  pages  66-67. 
Ampeloglypter  ater,  W.  Va.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  119. 
Ampcloglypter  sesostris,  W.  Va.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  119. 
Ampelophaga  myron,  4th  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  pages  42-45. 
Anaphothrips  striata,  jSIaine  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  83. 
Anarsia  lineatella,  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  169. 

381 


382  REFERENCES 

Anasa  tristis,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  39. 

Ancylis  co?nptana,  N.  J.  Exp,  Sta.  Bull.  225. 

Ancylis  nubeculana,  N.  Y.  State  Museum  Bull.  124. 

Anomala  spp.,  10th  Rpt.  N.  Y.  State  Ent.,  page  411. 

Anthonomus  grandis,  Farmers'  Bull.  344. 

Anthonomus  quadrigibbus,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  98. 

Anthonomus  scutellaris,  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  47. 

Anthonomus  signatus,  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  225. 

Anthrenus  scrophidarice,  N.  Y.  State  Museum  Bull.  136. 

Aphis  bakeri,  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  133. 

Aphis  brassicce,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  300. 

Aphis  forbesi,  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  225. 

Aphis  gossypii,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  80. 

Aphis  maidis,  Bur.  Ent.  Tech.  Ser.  Bull.  12-VIII. 

Aphis  maidi-radicis,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  85-VI. 

Aphis  persicae-niger,  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  133. 

Aphis  pomi,  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  133. 

Aphis  rumicis,  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  23. 

Aphis  setaricB,    Okla.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  88. 

Aphis  sorbi,  Rpt.  Conn.  State  Ent.,  1909,  page  343. 

Archips  argyrospila,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  311. 

Archips  rosaceana,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  311. 

Aspidiotus  ancylus,  Mo.  Fruit  Sta.  Bull.  18. 

Aspidiotus  forbesi,  Mo.  Fruit  Sta.  Bull.  18. 

Aspidiotus  ostreceformis,  Bur.  Ent.,  Bull.  20. 

Aspidiotus  perniciosus.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  62. 

Aulacaspis  rosce,  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  159. 

Autographa  brassicce,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  33. 

Balaninus  spp.,  W.  Va.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  128. 

Bembecia  marginata,  Wash.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  63. 

Blattidce,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  51. 

Blissus  leucopterus,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  95,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  69. 

Brucophagus  funebris,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  134. 

Bryobia  pratensis,  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  152. 

Bucculatrix  pomifoliella,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  214. 

Byturus  unicolor,  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  202. 

Calandra  granaria,  Farmers'  Bull.  45. 

Calandra  oryza,  N.  C.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  203. 

Caliroa  amygdalina,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  97-V. 

Caliroa  cerasi,  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  130. 

Canarsia  hammondi,  4th  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  page  217. 

Carpocapsa  pomonella,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  41. 


REFERENCES  383 

Cassida  spp.,  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  229. 

Cephus  occidentalis,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  117. 

Ceratoma  trifurcata,  U.S.D.A.  Yearbook,  1898,  pages  253-255. 

Ceresa  bubalus,    N.  Y.  Geneva  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bull.  17. 

Ceutorhynchus  rapce,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  23. 

Chcetocnema  confinis,  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  229. 

Chalcodermus  ceneus,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  85-VIII. 

Chionaspis  furfura,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  121. 

Chloridea  virescens,    Farmers'  Bull.  120. 

Chrysobothris  femorata,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  32. 

Chrysomyia  macellaria,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  5. 

Cimex  lectularius,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  47. 

Cingilia  catenaria,  4th  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  pages  186-187. 

Cladius  pectinicornis,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  105. 

Cleora  pampinaria.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  66-III. 

Clivina  impressifrons,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  85-11. 

Cnemidocoptes  spp..  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  92. 

Colaspis  brunnea,  23d  Rpt.  111.  State  Ent.,  page  104. 

Coleophora  fietcherella,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  80-11. 

Coleophora  malivorella,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  124. 

Conotrachelus  cratcegi,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  148. 

Conotrachelus  nenuphar,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  103. 

Contariyiia  johnsoni,  N.  Y.  Geneva  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  331. 

Contarinia  pyrivora,  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  99. 

Contarinia  sorghicola,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  85-IV. 

Coptocycla  spp.,  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  229. 

Coptodisca  splendoriferella,  4th  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  pages  263-265. 

Crambus  hortuellus,  Mass.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  115. 

Cr ambus  spp..  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  95. 

Craponius  incequalis,  W.  Va.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  100. 

Crioceris  asparagi.  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  102, 

Crioceris  duodecimpunctata,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  102. 

Ctenocephalus  canis,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  108. 

Cidicidce,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull  88. 

Cydia  nigricana,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  33. 

Cylas  formicarius,  Tex.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  93. 

Cymatophora  ribearia,  4th  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  pages  184-186. 

Dasyneura  leguminicola,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  134. 

Datana  ministra,  N.  H.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  139. 

Dermanyssus  gallinoj,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  92. 

Desmia  funeralis,  Farmers'  Bull.  70. 

Diabrotica  duodecitnpunctata,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  44. 


384  REFERENCES 

Diabrotica  longicornis,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  44. 

Diabrotica  vittata,  20tli  Rpt.  N.  H,  Exp.  Sta. 

Diacrisia  virginica,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  82-V. 

Diaphania  hyalinata,  N.  C.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  214. 

Diaphania  nitidalis,  N.  C.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  214. 

Diastrophus  turgidus,  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  45. 

Diatrcea  saccharalis,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  116. 

Diatroea  zeacolella,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  139. 

Dichomeris  ligulellus,  N.  Y.  Cornell,  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  187. 

Dicyphus  minimus,  Fla.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  48. 

Disonycha  spp.,  21st  Rpt.  III.  State  Ent.,  page  115-117. 

Dolerus  spp.,  Insect  Life,  Vol.  IV,  page  169. 

Drasteria  erechtea,  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  116. 

Dysdercus  suturellus.  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  149. 

Eccoptogaster  rugulosus,  N.  Y.  Geneva  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  180. 

Elaphidion  villosum,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  151. 

Elasmopalpus  lignosellus,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  23. 

Elateridce,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  44. 

Emphytus  cinctus,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  105. 

Empoasca  mali,  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  111. 

Empria  maculata.  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  54. 

Endelomyia  rosce,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  105. 

Ennomos  subsignarius,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  286. 

Ephestia  kuehniella,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  112. 

Epicoerus  imbricatus,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  43. 

Epilachna  borealis,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  19. 

Epilachna  corrupta,  Yearbook,   U.  S.  D.  A.,  1898,  p.  251. 

Epitrix  cucumeris,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  19. 

Epitrix  parvula,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  123. 

Epochra  canadensis,  Maine  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  35. 

Erannis  tilaria,  4th  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  pages  193-195. 

Eriophyes  pyri,  N.  Y.  Geneva  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  306. 

Estigm,ene  acrcea,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  43. 

Eudamus  proteus,  Fla.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  45. 

Eulecanium  nigrofasciatum,  Md.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  149. 

Euphoria  inda,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  19. 

Euproctis  chrysorrhoea,  N.  H.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  136. 

Eurymus  eurytheme.  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  133. 

Eutettix  tenella.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  66-IV. 

Euthrips  nicotiance.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  65. 

Euthrips  pyri,  N.  Y.  Geneva  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  343. 

Euthrips  tritici,  Fla.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  46. 


REFERENCES  385 

Evergestis  rimosalis,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  33. 
Fidia  viticida,  N.  Y.  Geneva  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  331. 
Formicina,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  34. 
Fungous  Diseases,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  107. 
Galerucella  cavicollis,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  19. 
Gastrophilus  equi,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  5. 
Hcemotopinus  eurysternus,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  5. 
Hoematopinus  urius,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  5. 
H (Emotopinus  vituli.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  5. 
Haltica  chalybea,  N.  Y.  Geneva  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  331. 
Haltica  ignita,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  23. 
Harrisina  americana.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  68-VIII. 
Heliothis  obsoleta,  Farmers'  Bull.  290. 
Heliothrips  hcemorrhoidalis,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  64- VI. 
Hellula  undalis,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  109-III. 
Hemerocampa  leucostigma,  N.  Y.  Geneva  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  312. 
Hemerocampa  spp.,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  BuU.  151. 
H eterocordylus  malinus,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  291. 
Household  Insects,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  4. 
Hyalopterus  arundinis,  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  133. 
Hydrcecia  immanis,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  7. 
Hylastinus  obscurus,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  134. 
Hypena  humuli,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  7. 
Hyphantria  cunea,  Del.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  56. 
Hypoderma  lineata,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  25. 
Hypsopygia  costalis,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  134. 
Insects  and  Disease,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  78. 
Iridomyrmex  hmnilis,  Cal.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  207. 
Isia  Isabella,  23d  Rept.  lU.  State  Ent.,  pages  72-75. 
Isosoma  grande.  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  100. 
Isosoma  hordei,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  42. 
Isosoma  triiici,  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  226. 

Ithycerus  noveboracensis,  5th  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  page  187. 
Itonida  tritici,  Farmers'  Bull.  132. 
Janus  integer,  N.  Y.  Cornell,  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  126.  . 
Jassidce,  21st.  Rpt.  111.  State  Ent.,  pages  62-79,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  57. 
Lachnosterna  spp.,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  116. 
Languria  mozardi.  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  134. 
Laphygma  exigua.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  33. 
Laphygma  frugiperda.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  29. 
Laria  pisorum.  Yearbook,  U.S.D.A.,  1898,  pages  234-239. 
Lasioderma  serricorne,  Fla.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  48. 
2c 


386  REFERENCES 

Laspeyresia  inter stinctana.  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  134. 

Laspeyresia  prunivora.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  68-V. 

Lecanium  conii,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  80-VIII. 

Lema  trilineata,  1st  Rpt.  Mo.  State  Ent.,  page  99. 

Lepidosaphes  ulmi,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  121. 

Lepisma  saccharina,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  49. 

Leptinotarsa  decemlineata,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  87. 

Leucania  unipuncta,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  95. 

Ligyrus  gihbosus,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  33. 

Ligyrus  rugiceps,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  54. 

Lipeurus  spp.,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  5. 

Lixus  concavus.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  23. 

Loxostege  similalis,  23d  Rpt.  Ill,  State  Ent.,  page  89. 

Loxostege  sticticalis,  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  98. 

Lygidea  mendax,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  291. 

Lygus  pratensis,  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  47. 

Lyperosia  irritans,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  115. 

Macrodactylus  subspinosus,  N.  Y.  Geneva  Exp.  Sta.  BuU.  331. 

Macrosiphum  pisi,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  134. 

Macrosiphum  solanifolii,  Maine  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  147. 

Malacosoma  americana,  N.  Y.  Geneva  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  152. 

Malacosoma  disstria,  N.  Y.  Geneva  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  159. 

Mamestra  legitima,  Bur.  Ent.  BuU.  66-III. 

Mamestra  picta,  14tli  Rpt.  N.  Y.  State  Ent.,  pages  201-207. 

Mar  gar  opus  annulatus,  Tenn.  Exp.  Sta.  BuU.  81. 

Mayetiola  destructor.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  16. 

Melanotus  communis,  18tli  Rpt.  111.  State  Ent.,  pages  27-51. 

Meliana  albilinea,  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  122. 

Melittia  satyriniformis,  Ga.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  45. 

MeloidoB,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  43. 

Melophagus  ovinus,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  5. 

Memythrus  polistiformis,  W.  Va.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  110. 

Menopon  spp.,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  5. 

Meromyza  americana,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  42. 

Metallus  rubi,  Del.  Exp.  Sta.  BuU.  87. 

Mineola  indiginella,  4tli  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  pages  211-213. 

Mineola  vaccinii,  Mass.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  115. 

Monomorium  spp.,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  34. 

Monophadnoides  rubi,  N.  Y.  Geneva  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  150. 

Monoptilota  nubilella.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  23. 

M anoxia  puncticollis,  24th  Rpt.  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.,  pages  108-111. 

Murgantia  histrionica.  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  103. 


REFERENCES  387 

Musca  domestica,  Farmers'  Bull.  459. 

Myzus  cerasi,  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  133. 

Myzus  persicce,  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  133. 

Myzus  ribis,  N.  Y.  Geneva,  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  139. 

Noctuidce,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  95. 

Nysius  angustatus,  23d  Rpt.  111.  State  Ent.,  page  117. 

Oberea  bimaculata,  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  96. 

(Ecanthus  spp.,  23d  Rpt.  III.  State  Ent.,  page  215. 

(Estrus  ovis,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  5. 

Oncideres  cingulatus,  Okla.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  91. 

Otiorhynchus  ovatus,  Maine  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  123. 

Oxyplilus  periscelidactylus,  4tli  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  page  221. 

Pachymerus  chinensis,  Yearbook,  U.S.D.A.,  1898,  page  242. 

Pachymerus  quadrimaculatus,  Yearbook,  U.S.D.A.,  1898,  page  245. 

Pachynematus  extensicoriiis.  Insect  Life,  Vol.  IV,  pages  174—177. 

Pachyzancla  bipunctalis,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  109-11. 

Paleacrita  vernata.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  68-11. 

Papaipema  nitela,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  95. 

Papilio  polyxenes,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  82-11. 

Parasites,  Introduction  of.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  91. 

Pegomya  brassicce,  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  200. 

Pegomya  fusciceps,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  63. 

Pegomya  vicina,  N.  Y.  Geneva  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  99. 

Pelidnota  punctata,  Okla.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  26. 

Pemphigus  betoe,  Wash.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  42. 

Pentatoma  ligata,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  86. 

Peridroma  margaritosa.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  29. 

Periplaneta  americana,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  51. 

Peronea  minutaf  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  102. 

Phlegethontius  spp.,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  123. 

Phla^ophthorus  liminaris.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  68-IX. 

Phlyctoenia  ferrugalis,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  190. 

Phorbia  cepetorum,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  63. 

Phorbia  rubivora,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  126. 

Phorodon  humuli,  Cal.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  160. 

Phthorimcea  operculella,  Cal.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  135,  Farmers'  Bull.  120. 

Phyllotreta  pusilla,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  43. 

Phylloiretra  vittata,  Rpt.  Ent.  U.S.D.A.,  1884,  pages  301-304. 

Phylloxera  vastratrix,  Farmers'  Bull.  70. 

Phytonomus  nigrirostis,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  85-1. 

Phytonomus  posticus,  Utah  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  110. 

Phytonomus  punctatus,  lU.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  134. 


388  REFERENCES 

Piophila  casei,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  4. 

Plodia  i?iterpunctella,  N.  C.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  203. 

Plusia  simplex,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  33. 

Plutella  maculipennis,  Ky.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  114. 

P cecilocapsus  lineatus,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  58. 

Polychrosis  viteana,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  223. 

Pontia  protodice,  1st  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  pages  71-77. 

Pontia  rapoB,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  60. 

Porthetria  dispar,  N.  H.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  136. 

Prionus  imbricornis,  5th  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  page  110. 

Prodenia  ornithogalli,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  43. 

Pseudococcus  calceolarice,  La.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  121. 

Pseudococcus  citri,  Cal.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  214. 

Psila  roscB,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  33. 

Psoroptes  communis,  Ind.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  80. 

Psylla  pyricola,  Rpt.  Conn.  State  Ent.,  1903,  pages  262-266. 

Psylliodes  punctulata,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull,  66-VI. 

Pteronus  ribesii,  Rpt.  Conn.  State  Ent.,  1902,  pages  170-172. 

Pulvinaria  vitis,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  112. 

Pyralis  farinalis,  N.  C.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  203. 

Rhagoletis  cingulata,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  172. 

Rhagoletis  pomonella,  N.  H.  Exp.  Sta.  Cire.  14. 

Rhopobota  vacciniana,  Mass.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  115. 

Sanninoidea  exitiosa,  Ga.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  73. 

Saperda  Candida,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  32. 

Schistocerus  hamatus,  Farmers'  Bull.  70. 

Schizoneura  lanigera,  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  133. 

Schizura  concinna,  N.  H.  Exp,  Sta.  Bull.  139. 

Selandria  vitis,  Rpt.  N.  J.  State  Ent.,  1889,  page  304. 

Sibine  stimulea,  4tli  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  pages  98-99. 

Silvanus  surinamensis,  N.  C.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  203. 

Siphocoryne  avence,  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  133. 

Sitones  flavescens,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  134. 

Sitotroga  cerealla,  N.  C.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  203. 

Sphenophorus  maidis.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  95-11. 

Sphenophorus  spp..  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  95. 

Sphinx  spp.,  4th  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  page  29. 

Spilonota  ocellana,  Rpt.  Conn.  State  Ent.,  1909,  page  353. 

Stomoxys  calcitrans,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  71. 

Synanthedon  pictipes,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  68-IV. 

Synchlora  cerata,  8th  Rpt.  N.  Y.  State  Ent.,  pages  129-133. 

Systena  blanda,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  23. 


REFERENCES  389 

Systena  spp.,  23d  Rpt.  111.  State  Ent.,  page  107. 

TahanidcB,  Ky.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  151. 

Tarsonemus  waitei,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  97-VI. 

Tenebrio  molilor,  Farmers'  Bull.  45. 

Tenebroidcs  mauritanicus,  N.  C.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  203. 

Tetranychus  bimaculatus,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  150. 

Thrips  tabaci,  Fla.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  46. 

Thyreocoris  pulicaria,  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  102. 

Thyridopteryx  ephemerceforinis,  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  181. 

Tibicen  septendecim.  Bull.  71. 

Ticks :  classification,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  72. 

Tinea  granella,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  8. 

Tinea  pellionella.  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  36. 

Tipulidce,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  85-VII. 

Tischeria  malifoliella,  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  68-III. 

Toxoptera  graminum,  Bur.  Ent.  Circ.  93. 

Tribolium  confusum,  Farmers'  Bull.  45. 

Tribolium  navale,  Farmers'  Bull.  45. 

Trichobaris  trinotata.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  33. 

Trichodectes  spp.,  Minn.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  48. 

Tyloderma  fragarice,  Ky.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  80. 

Typhlocyba  comes,  N.  Y.  Geneva  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  344. 

Typophorus  canellus,  Maine  Exp.  Sta.  Rpt.,  1895,  pages  106-110. 

Uranotes  melinus.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  57. 

Xyleborus  dispar.  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  7. 

Xylina  spp.,  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  123. 

Zophodia  grossularice,  4tli  Rpt.  Minn.  State  Ent.,  page  214. 


INDEX 


Abbott's  Sphinx,  273. 
Abdomen,  10. 
Acanthiicloe,  28. 
Acanthoscelidcs  obtecfus,  365. 
Accessories  : 

cut-off,  102. 

extension  rod,  101. 

hose,  102. 

mixing  tanks,  104. 

nozzles,  100. 

spray  tanks,  103. 

strainers,  103. 
Achemon  Sphinx,  272. 
Acid,  carbolic,  emulsion,  77. 

hydrocyanic,  82. 
Acleris  minuta,  300. 
Acrididce,  23,  142. 
Acronycta  ohlinita,  275. 
^geria  rutilans,  234. 

tipuliformis,  243. 
Agitator,  90. 
Agonoderus  pallipes,  125. 
Agrilus  ruficollis,  244. 
Agriotes  mancns,  107. 
Agroynyza  simplex,  138. 
Agrotis  ypsilon,  141. 
Air  chamber,  90. 

tubes,  11. 
Alabama  argillacca,  175. 
Aleurudcs  vaporariorum,  205. 
Alfalfa  Caterpillar,  175. 

Leaf-weevil,  162. 
Alfalfa  insects  (additional)  : 

Army  Worm,  172. 

Clover  Leaf-weevil,  164.       » 

Clover  Seed  C^halcid  Fly,  220. 

Cutworms,  140. 

Fall  Army  Worm,  173. 

Garden  Webworni,  183. 

Grasshoppers,  142. 


Alimentary  canal,  13. 
Allorhina  nitida,  324. 
Almond,  injury  by  Thrips,  329, 
Alsophila  pometaria,  281. 
Alijjna  octomaculata,  275. 
American  Cockroach,  353. 
Ampeloglypter  ater,  247. 

sesostris,  246. 
Ampelophagus  m.yron,  272. 
Anaphothrips  striata,  204. 
Anarsia  lineatella,  248. 
Anasa  tristis,  190. 
Anatomy  of  insects : 

external,  7. 

internal,  11. 
Ancylis  comjjtana,  303. 

nubeculana,  305. 
Angoumois  Grain-moth,  358. 
Animal  pests,  371. 
Anomala,  Light-loving,  262. 
Anomala  lucicola,  262. 

marginata,  262. 

undulata,  262. 
Anopheles  m,aculipennis,  43. 
Ant: 

Argentine,  351. 

Black,  351. 

characteristics,  110. 

Cornfield,  114. 

House,  351. 

Little  Red,  351. 

Strawberry  root,  229. 

Winged,  38. 
Ant  Tape,  352. 

Poison,  352. 
Ants  with  plant  lice,  318. 
Antennae,  types  of,  6. 
Anthomyiidae,  33. 
Anthotiotnus  grandis,  208. 

quadrigibbus,  333. 

scutellaris,  334. 

signatus,  337. 
391 


392 


INDEX 


Anthrenus  scrophularioe,  357. 
Apatela  ohlinita,  275. 
Aphididce,  characteristics,  28. 
Aphis: 

Apple,  316. 

Bean,  201. 

Beet  root,  115. 

Black  Peach,  229,  320. 

Brown  Plum,  321. 

Cabbage,  202. 

Cherry,  318. 

Clover,  317. 

Corn  Leaf,  198. 

Corn  Root,  113. 

Cotton,  199. 

Currant,  319. 

European  Grain,  198,  317. 

Grapevine,  319. 

Green  Peach,  198,  320. 

Hop,  203,  321. 

Mealy  Plum,  321. 

Melon,  199. 

Pea,  200. 

Potato,  202. 

Rosy  Apple,  317. 

Spinach,  198. 

Spring  Grain,  196. 

Strawberry  Root,  229. 

Wheat,  222. 

Woolly  Apple,  226. 
Aphis  hakeri,  317.  * 

brassiccB,  202. 

forbesi,  229. 

gossypii,  199. 

maidi-radicis,  113. 

maidis,  198. 

persicce-niger,  229,  320. 

pomi,  316. 

rumicis,  201. 

setarice,  321. 

sorbi,  317. 
Apina,  39. 
Apparatus,  dusting,  99. 

spraying,  92. 
Apple  Aphis,  316. 
Rosy,  317. 
Woolly,  226. 

Caterpillar,  Red-humped,  271. 

Curculio,  333. 

Leaf  Bucculatrix,  278. 

Leaf-folder,  Lesser,  306. 

Leaf-hopper,  313. 


Leaf-sewer,  305. 

Leaf  Skeletonizer,  277. 

Leaf  Trumpet  Miner,  309. 

Maggot,  343. 

Red  Bugs,  348. 

Tree  Borer, 

Flat-headed,  237. 

Round-headed,  235. 
Twig-borer,  250. 
Worm,  Lesser,  339. 
Apple  insects  (additional)  : 
Anomalas,  262. 
Bag-worm,  307. 
Browntail  Moth,  292. 
Bud-moth,  298. 
Buffalo  Tree-hopper,  253. 
Cigar  Case-bearer,  .306. 
Climbing  Cutworms,  328. 
Clover  Aphis,  317. 
Codling  Moth,  337. 
Cranberry  Spanworm,  283. 
Elm  Spanworm,  283. 
European  Grain  Aphis,  317. 
Fall  Canker-worm,  281. 
Fall  Webworm,  296. 
Flower  Thrips,  331. 
Fruit-tree  Leaf-roller,  302. 
Green  Fruit  Worm,  325. 
Green  June  Beetle,  324. 
Gypsy  Moth,  290. 
Imbricated  Snout  Beetle,  329. 
Indian  Euphoria,  323. 
Leaf  Grumpier,  297. 
Lime-tree  Winter  Moth,  284. 
New  York  Weevil,  329. 
Oblique  Banded  Leaf  Roller,  30i 
Oyster-shell  Scale,  258. 
Palmer-worm,  278. 
Pear-leaf  Blister-mite,  308. 
Periodical  Cicada,  253. 
Pistol  Case-bearer,  307. 
Plum  Curculio,  332. 
Putnam's  Scale,  257. 
Railroad  Worm,  343. 
Resplendent  Shield-bearer,  310. 
San  Jose  Scale,  254. 
Scurfy  Scale,  259. 
Shot-borer,  249. 
Shot  Hole  Borer,  241. 
Spring  Canker-worm,  279. 
Tarnished  Plant-bug,  347. 
Tent  Caterpillar,  266. 


INDEX 


393 


Apple  insects  (continued) : 

Terrapin  Scale,  261. 

Tussock  Moths,  295. 

Twig-pruner,  251. 

Yellow-necked  Caterpillar,  270. 
Apricot,  injury  by  Thrips,  329. 
Archips  argyrospila,  302. 

rosacea  na,  188,  302. 
Argentine  Ant,  110,  351. 
Argopsylla  gallinacea,  378. 
Argynnis,  34. 
Army  Worm,  172. 

Beet,  174. 

Fall,  173. 

False,  274. 

Wheat-head,  214. 
Arsenate  of  lead,  66. 

with  Bordeaux,  86. 
Arsenic,  compounds  of,  65. 
Arsenide  of  cobalt,  169. 
Arthropods,  5. 
Ash-gray  Blister-beetle,  144. 
Asparagus  Beetle,  152. 

Twelve-spotted,  154. 
Asparagus  Miner,  138. 
Aspidiotus  ancylus,  257. 

forbesi,  257. 

ostreceformis,  257. 

perniciosus,  254. 
Assassin  bugs,  28. 
AsilidcB,  32. 
Atomizer,  92. 
Atrytone,  34. 
Aulacaspis  rosoe,  260. 
Australian  Roach,  353. 
Autographa  brassicce,  178. 
Automatic  sprayers,  93. 
Automeris,  35. 

B 

Bacterial  diseases  of  insects,  50. 
Bag-worm,  307. 
Balaninus  caryce,  368. 

proboscideus,  368. 

rectus,  368. 
Bamboo  extension  rods,  102. 
Banded  Flea-beetle,  158. 
Banding  trees,  60. 
Bark-beetle,  Peach,  242. 
Barley  insects  (see  Wheat). 
Barley  Straw  Worm,  130. 
Barred- winged  Onion  Maggot,  121. 


Barrel  pumps,  94. 
Barrier : 

ant  tape,  352. 

oil,  194. 

tanglefoot,  60. 
Bean  Aphis,  201. 

Lady  Beetle,  148. 

Leaf-beetle,  147. 

Leaf-roller,  188. 

Weevil,  365. 

Weevil,  Four-spotted,  366. 
Bean  insects  (additional)  : 

Blister-beetles,  145. 

Cutworms,  140. 

Lima  Bean  Stem-borer,  136. 

Pale-striped  Flea-beetle,  157. 

Pea-aphis,  200. 

Pea-moth,  217. 

Red  Spider,  207. 

Root  Maggots,  121. 

Smaller  Corn  Stalk-borer,  127. 

Striped  Garden  Caterpillar,  171. 

Zebra-caterpillar,  171. 
Bedbug,  354. 
Bee,  illustrated,  39. 
Beet  Army  Worm,  174. 

Leaf-beetle,  Larger,  147. 

Leafhopper,  195. 

Webworm,  Southern,  185. 
Beet  insects  (additional)  : 

Army  Worm,  172. 

Blister-beetles,  144. 

Carrot  Beetle,  124. 

Celery  Leaf-tier,  186. 

Cutworms,  140. 

Fall  Army  Worm,  173. 

Garden  Webworm,  183. 

Grasshoppers,  142. 

Hop  Flea-beetle,  162. 

Pale-striped  Flea-beetle,  157. 

Root  lice,  115. 

Spinach  Flea-beetle,  159. 
Leaf-miner,  189. 

Striped  Garden  Caterpillar,  171. 

Sugar-beet  Webworm,  184. 

Triangular  Flea-beetle,  160. 

Twelve-spotted   Cucumber   Beetle, 
152. 

Zebra-caterpillar,  171. 
Beetle : 

Ash-gray  Blister,  144. 

Asparagus,  152. 


394 


INDEX 


Beetle  {continued): 

Banded  Flea,  158. 

Bean  Lady,  148. 

Bean  Leaf,  147. 

Black  Blister,  145. 

Blister,  144. 

Buttercup  Oil,  145. 

Carpet,  357. 

Carrot,  124. 

characteristics  of,  28. 

Cherry  Leaf,  263. 

Cigarette,  370. 

Colorado  Potato,  Frontispiece,  63, 
145. 

Confused  Flour,  364. 

Cucumber  Flea,  156. 

Grape  Flea,  264. 

Gray  Blister,  145. 

Green  June,  324. 

Hop  Flea,  162. 

Imbricated  Snout,  167,  329. 

Larger  Beet  Leaf,  147. 

May,  109. 

Nuttall's  Blister,  145. 

Pale-striped  Flea,  157. 

Peach  Bark,  242. 

Rust-red  Flour,  364. 

Saw-toothed  Grain,  364. 

Slender  Seed-corn  Ground,  124. 

Spinach  Flea,  159. 

Squash  Lady,  148. 

Strawberry  Flea,  266. 
Leaf,  263. 

Striped  Blister,  144. 
Cucumber,  150. 
Flea,  158. 

Sugar-cane,  123. 

Sweet  Potato  Flea,  161. 

Three-lined  Potato,  146. 

Tobacco  Flea,  159. 

Tortoise,  154. 

Triangular  Flea,  160. 

Twelve-spotted  Asparagus,  154. 
Cucumber,  152. 

Two-striped  Sweet  Potato,  155. 

Western  Cabbage  Flea,  159. 
Behavior  of  insects,  18. 
Bembecia  marginata,  234. 
Berry  Moth,  Grape,  341. 
Bill-bugs,  128. 
Birds,  45. 
Biting  insects,  insecticides  for,  65. 


Biting  lice : 

characteristics  of,  24. 

on  animals,  375. 

on  poultry,  377. 
Biting  mouth  parts,  8. 
Blackberry  Leaf -miner,  310. 

Pithy-gall,  247. 
Blackberry  insects  (additional)  : 

Anomalas,  262. 

Negro  Bug,  348. 

Oblique  Banded  Leaf  Roller,  302. 

Raspberry  Byturus,  342. 
Cane-borer,  245. 
Cane-maggot,  245. 
Root-borer,  234. 
Sawfly,  287. 
Spanworm,  327. 

Red-necked  Cane-borer,  244. 

Rose  Scale,  260. 

Smeared  Dagger,  275. 

Strawberry  Crown  Moth,  234. 
Leaf-roller,  303. 

Tree  Crickets,  252. 
Black  Blister-beetle,  145. 
Black  Flies,  32. 

Blackhead  Cranberry  Worm,  299. 
Black  leaf  extract,  76. 

forty,  75. 
Black-legged  Tortoise  Beetle,  155. 
Black  Peach  Aphis,  229,  320. 
Blatella  gennanica,  353. 
Blafta  orientalis,  353. 
Blattidce,  23. 
Blissus  leucopterus,  193. 
Blister-beetles,  144. 
Blister-mite,  Pear-leaf,  308. 
Blood  of  insects,  12. 
Blossom  Midge,  Grape,  331. 
Blue  vitriol,  85. 
Body  walls,  15. 
Boll  WeevU,  Cotton,  208. 
Boll-worm,  Cotton,  211. 
Bomhus,  39. 
Bordeaux  mixture,  85. 

nozzle,  100. 
Borer  : 

Apple  Twig,  250. 

Clover  Root,  116. 

Clover  Stem,  127. 

Corn  Stalk,  115. 

Cotton  Square,  213. 

Currant,  243. 


INDEX 


395 


Borer  {continued): 

destruction  of,  61. 

Flat-headed  Apple-tree,  237. 

Grape  Root,  231. 

Hop-plant,  136. 

Lesser  Peach,  240. 

Lima  Bean  Stem,  136. 

Peach,  237. 

Potato  Stalk,  135. 

Prionid,  232. 

protection  against,  236. 

Raspberry  Cane,  245. 

Raspberry  Root,  234. 

Red-necked  Cane,  244. 

Round-headed  Apple-tree,  235. 

Shot,  249. 

Shot  Hole,  241. 

Smaller  Corn  Stalk,  127. 

Sfjuash,  134. 

Stalk,  132. 

Strawberry  Crown,  233. 

Sugar-cane,  126. 

Sweet  Potato  Root,  117. 
Bot-fly  : 

Horse,  371. 

Ox,  372. 

Sheep,  372. 
Braconid  parasite,  46. 
Bran  mash,  68. 
Bristly  Rose  Slug,  181.' 
Brown  Ant,  114. 
Brown  Plum  Aphis,  321. 
Browntail  Moth,  292. 
Bruchiis  chinensis,  366. 

obtectus,  365. 

pisorum,  368. 

quadrimaculatus,  366. 
Brucophagus  funcbris,  220. 
Bryobia  prate nais,  208,  321. 
Bubonic  plague,  44. 
Bucculatrix,  Apple-leaf,  278. 
Bucculatrix  pomifoliella,  278. 
Bucket  pump,  92. 
Bud  Mite,  Peach,  331. 
Bud-moth,  298. 
Budworm  : 

Tobacco,  213. 

Tobacco  False,  211. 
Buffalo  Moth,  357. 

Tree-hopper,  253. 
Bug: 

Apple  Red,  348. 


Bed,  354. 

Bill,  128. 

Chinch,  193. 

False  Chinch,  192. 

Four-lined  Leaf,  311. 

Green,  196. 

Harlequin  Cabbage,  191. 

June,  109. 

Maize  BUI,  128. 

Mealy,  206. 

Negro,  348. 

Plant,  221. 

Squash,  190. 

Sugar-cane  Mealy,  115. 

Tarnished  Plant,  192,  347. 

Timothy  Bill,  129. 
Buhach,  76. 
Buprestidoe,  .30. 
Burning  caterpillars,  59. 
Buttercup  Oil  Beetle,  145. 
Butterflies,  characteristics  of,  34. 
Byturus,  Raspberry,  342. 
Byturus  unicolor,  342. 


Cabbage  Aphis,  202. 

Bug,  Harlequin,  191. 

Curculio,  137. 

Flea-beetle,  Western,  159. 

Looper,  178. 

Maggot,  118. 

Webworm,  185. 

Worm  : 

Cross-striped,  177. 
Imported,  176. 
Southern,  177. 
Cabbage  insects  (additional)  : 

Cutworms,  140. 

Diamond-back  Moth,  178. 

Pale-striped  Flea-beetle,  157. 

Striped  Flea-beetle,  158. 

Zebra-caterpillar,  171. 
Caccecia  argyrospila,  302. 
Cadelle,  364. 
Calandra  granaria,  364. 

oryza,  364. 
Calico  Back,  191. 
Caliroa  amygdalina,  289. 

cerasi,  288. 
Calocampa  nuhera,  274. 
Calosoma,  47. 
Camnula  pellucida,  143. 


396 


INDEX 


Canarsia  hammondi,  277. 
Cane-borer: 

Raspberry,  245. 

Red-necked,  244. 
Cane  insects  (see  Sugar  Cane). 
Cane-maggot,  Raspberry,  245. 
Canker-worm  : 

Fall,  281. 

Spring,  279. 
Cantharis  nuttalli,  145. 
Capitate  antenna,  6. 
Capsidce,  28. 
Carahidoe,  30. 

Carbolated  whitewash,  242. 
Carbolic  acid,  emulsion,  77. 

for  wounds,  374. 
Carbon  bisulphide,  80. 

tetrachloride,  81. 
Carpenter  Moths,  35. 
Carpet  Beetle,  357. 
Carpocapsa  pomonella,  337. 
Carrion  beetles,  30. 
Carrot  Beetle,  124. 
Carrot  Rust-fly,  122. 
Carrot  insects  (see  Celery). 
Case-bearer : 

Cigar,  306. 

Pistol,  307. 
Cassida  hivittata,  155. 

nigripes,  155. 
Cat  and  Dog  Flea,  354. 
Caterpillar  : 

Alfalfa,  175. 

Celery,  170. 

Clover  Seed,  217. 

Forest  Tent,  269. 

Grapevine  Hog,  272. 

Hedgehog,  182. 

Melon,  216. 

Red-humped  Apple,  271. 

Saddle-back,  183. 

Salt-marsh,  182. 

Striped  Garden,  171. 

Tent,  266. 

Yellow-bear,  181. 

Yellow-necked,  270. 

Zebra,  171. 
Caterpillar  (see  also  Worm). 
Cattle-tick,  375. 

Cauliflower  insects  (see  Cabbage). 
Cecidomyiidoe,  32. 
Celery  Caterpillar,  170. 


Leaf-tier,  186. 

Looper,  178. 
Celery  insects  (additional)  : 

Carrot  Beetle,  124. 
Rust-fly,  122. 

Striped  Garden  Caterpillar,  171. 

Zebra-caterpillar,  171. 
Cephus  occidentalism  129. 
Cerambycidae,  30. 
Ceratoma  trifurcata,  147. 
Cereals,  insects  (see  Stored  Products). 
Ceresa  bubalus,  253. 
Ceutorhyncus  rapce,  137. 
ChcBtocnenia  confinis,  161. 
Choetopsis  cenea,  121. 
Chafer,  Rose,  322. 
Chalcid  Fly,  Clover  Seed,  220. 
Chalcididce,  37. 
Chalcodermus  ceneas,  211. 
Characteristics  of  insects,  5. 
Cheese  Skipper,  358. 
Cherry  Aphis,  318. 

Fruit  Maggot,  345. 

Leaf-beetle,  263. 

Scale,  257. 
Cherry  insects  (additional)  : 

Apple  Twig-borer,  250. 

Browntail  Moth,  292. 

Bud-moth,  298. 

G>T>sy  Moth,  290. 

Lesser  Peach-borer,  240. 

Peach  Bark-beetle,  242. 

Peach-borer,  237. 

Pear-slug,  288. 

Plum  Curculio,  332. 

Rose-chafer,  322. 

San  Jose  Scale,  254. 

Shot-borer,  249. 

Shot  Hole  Borer,  241. 

Terrapin  Scale,  261. 

Tussock  Moths,  295. 
Chestnut  Weevil,  368. 

Larger,  368. 
Chickens,  value  of,  57. 
Chicken  Mite,  377. 
Chinch-bug,  193. 

False,  192. 
Chionaspis  furfura,  259. 
Chironomidce,  32. 
Chitin,  15. 

Chloridea  virescens,  213. 
Chrysalis,  20. 


INDEX 


397 


Chrysomelidce,  30. 
Chrysomyia  macellaria,  374. 
Chrysopa,  48. 
Cicada,  Periodical,  253. 
Cicadidce,  27. 
Cigar  Case-bearer,  306. 
Cigarette  Beetle,  370. 
Cimex  lectularius,  354. 
Circulatory  system,  12. 
Citrus  Mealy  Bug,  206. 
Cladius  pedinicornis,  181. 
Classification,  basis  of,  22. 
Clavate  antenna,  6. 
Clear-\\'ing  moths,  35. 
Cleora  pampinaria,  283. 
Click  beetles,  30,  107. 
Climbing  Cutworms,  328. 
Clivina  impressifrons,  124. 
Clothes  Moths,  355. 
Clover  Flower-midge,  219. 

Hay  Worm,  186. 

Leaf- weevil,  164, 
Lesser,  166. 

Mite,  208. 

Root-borer,  116. 

Seed-caterpillar,  217. 

Seed  Chalcid  Fly,  220. 

Stem-borer,  127. 

Weevil,  Flavescent,  167. 
Clover  insects  (additional)  : 

Army  Worm,  172. 

Cutworms,  140. 

Fall  Army  Worm,  173. 

Grasshoppers,  142. 

Northern  Grass  Worm,  179. 
Cnemidocoptes  gallince,  378. 

mutans,  378. 
Cobalt,  arsenide  of,  169. 
Coccidoe,  28. 
Coccinellidce,  30. 
Cockroach  : 

American,  353. 

Australian,  353. 

German,  353. 

Oriental,  353. 
Cocoons  of  parasite,  47. 
Codling  Moth,  337. 
Coiled  Rose  Slug,  181. 
Colaspis  hrunnea,  263. 
Coleophora  fletcheralla,  306. 

malivorella,  307. 
Coleoptera,  28. 


Colorado    Potato-beetle,    Frontispiece, 

63,  145. 
Commercial  lime  sulphur,  70. 
Complete  metamorphosis,  19. 
Compressed  air  outfits,  98. 
Confused  Flour  Beetle,  364, 
Conotrachelus  cratcegi,  336. 

nenuphar,  332. 
Contact  insecticides,  70. 
Contarinia  johnsoni,  331. 

pyrivora,  346. 

sorghicola,  219. 

tritici,  218. 
T'ontrol  of  insects  : 

banding,  60. 

burning,  59. 

contact  insecticides,  70. 

covering,  60. 

crop  rotation,  55. 

destroying  borers,  61. 
weeds,  57. 
egg  masses,  60. 

fall  plo%ving,  56. 

farm  practice,  55. 

fumigants,  80. 

fungicides  with  poisons,  85. 

hand  picking,  59. 

insecticides,  63. 

mechanical  means,  58. 

poison  insecticides,  65. 

protective  washes,  79. 

removing  crop  remnants,  57. 

removing  dead  limbs,  61. 

repellents,  79. 

stimulating  plant  growth,  58. 

time  of  planting,  57. 

traps,  62. 

use  of  poultry,  57. 
Copper  sulphate,  85. 
Coptocycln  hicolor,  155. 
Coptodisca  splcndoriferclla,  310. 
CorcidcE,  28. 

Corimelcena  pulicaria,  348. 
Corn  Bill-bugs,  128. 

Ear-worm,  211. 

Leaf-aphis,  198. 

Root  Aphis,  113. 

Root  Wcbworms,  112. 

Root-worm,  Southern,  111. 
Western,  111. 

Stalk  Borer,  125. 
Smaller,  127. 


398 


INDEX 


Corn  insects  (additional)  : 

Agonoderus,  124. 

Army  Worm,  172. 

Blister-beetles,  144. 

Carrot  Beetle,  124. 

Chinch-bug,  193. 

Cutworms,  140. 

Fall  Army  Worm,  173. 

Garden  Webworm,  183. 

Grasshoppers,  142. 

Ground  Beetles,  124. 

Leather  Jackets,  110, 

Root  Maggots,  121. 

Rose-chafer,  322. 

Seed-corn  Maggot,  121. 

Slender    Seed-corn    Ground-beetle, 
124. 

Spring  Grain-aphis,  196. 

Stalk  Borer,  132. 

Sugar-cane  beetle,  123. 

Twelve-spotted    Cucumber    Beetle, 
111. 

Vagabond  Crambus,  113. 

Wheat  Wire  worm,  107. 

White  Grubs,  109. 

Wireworms,  107. 
Cornfield  Ant,  114. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  352. 
Cossidce,  35. 
Cotton  Aphis,  199. 

Boll  Weevil,  208. 

Boll-worm,  211. 

Cutworms,  213. 

Square-borer,  213. 

Stainer,  222. 

Worm,  175. 
Cotton  insects  (additional)  : 

Cowpea  Curculio,  211. 

Garden  Webworm,  183. 

Pale-striped  Flea-beetle,  157. 

Plant-bugs,  221. 

Red  Spider,  207. 

Sharpshooters,  222. 
Cottony  Maple-scale,  260. 
Covering  for  plants,  60. 
Cowpea  Curculio,  211. 

Weevil,  366. 
Cowpea  insects  (see  Peas). 
Crambus  hortuellus,  231. 

luteolellus,  113. 

mutabilis,  112. 

trisectus,  112. 


Crambus  vulvivagellus,  113. 
Cranberry  Fruit-worm,  326. 

Girdler,  231. 

Span  worm,  283. 

Worm  : 

Blackhead,  299. 
Yellowhead,  300. 
Cranberry  insects  (additional)  : 

Chain  Spotted  Geometer,  284. 

False  Army-w^orm,  274. 

Fire  Worm,  299. 
Craponius  incequalis,  335. 
Crickets,  23. 

Tree,  252. 
Criddle  mixture,  143. 
Crioceris  asparagi,  152. 

duodecim  punctata,  154. 
Crop  of  insects,  13. 
Crop  rotation,  55. 
Cross-striped  Cabbage  Worm,  177. 
Croton  Bug,  353. 
Crown-girdler,  Strawberry,  230. 
Crown-borer,  Strawberry,  233. 
Crown  Moth,  Strawberry,  234. 
Crude  oil  emulsion,  74. 
Grumpier,  Leaf,  297. 
Ctenocephalus  canis,  354. 
Cuban  Hen  Flea,  378. 
Cucumber  Beetle. 

Striped,  150. 

Twelve-spotted,  152. 
Cucumber  Flea-beetle,  156. 
Cucumber  insects  (additional)  : 

Melon  Aphis,'' 199. 

Melon  Caterpillar,  216. 

Pickle  Worm,  215. 

Red  Spider,  207. 

Squash  Borer,  134. 

Squash-bug,  190. 

Squash  Lady  Beetle,  148. 
Culicidce,  32,  350. 
Curculio  : 

Apple,  333. 

Cabbage,  137. 

Cowpea,  211. 

Grape,  335. 

Plum,  332. 

Quince,  336. 

Rhubarb,  138. 
Curculionidce,  30. 
Currant  Aphis,  319. 

Borer,  243. 


INDEX 


399 


Currant  Fruit-fly,  346. 

Span  worm,  282. 

Stem-girdler,  246. 

Worm  : 

Imported,  285. 
Native,  286. 
Currant  insects  (additional)  : 

Four-lined  Leaf-bug,  311. 

San  Jose  Scale,  254. 

Terrapin  Scale,  261. 
Cut-off,  102. 

Cutworms,  140,  213,  328. 
Cydia  nigricana,  217. 
Cylas  formicarius,  117. 
Cymatophora  ribearia,  282. 


D 


Dagger,  Smeared,  275. 

Damage  by  insects,  3. 

Dasyneura  leguminicola,  219. 

Datana  ministra,  270. 

Definite  Marked  Tussock  Moth,  295. 

Derma nyssus  gallince,  377. 

Desmia  funeralis,  303. 

Destroying  egg  masses,  60. 

weeds,  57. 
Diahrotica  duodecimpunctata,  111,  152. 

longicornis.  111. 

vittata,  150. 
Diacrisia  virginica,  181. 
Diamond-back  Moth,  177-178. 
Diaphania  hyalinata,  216. 

nitidalis,  215. 
Diastrophus  turgidus,  247. 
Diatrcea  saccharalis,  126. 

zeacolella,  125. 
Dichomeris  ligulellus,  278. 
Dicyphus  minimus,  195. 
Digestive  system,  13. 
Diphadnus  appendiculatus,  286. 
Diptera,  31. 

Diseases  carried  by  insects,  42. 
Disk  nozzle,  100. 
Disonycha  triangularis,  160. 

xanthomelcena,  159. 
Dispersal  of  insects,  40. 
Distillate  oil  emulsion,  261,  330. 
Dog  Flea,  354. 
Dolerus  arvcnsis,  180. 

collar  is,  180. 
Domestic  animal  pests,  371. 


Dragon  Flies,  24. 
Drasteria  erechtea,  179. 
Dry-slaked  lime,  79. 
Dusting  apparatus,  99. 
Dysdercus  suturellus,  221. 

E 

Ear-worm,  Corn,  211. 
Eccoptogaster  rugulosus,  241. 
Egg  parasites,  46. 
Egg-plant  insects  (see  Potato). 
Eggs  of  parasite,  47. 
Eight-spotted  Forester,  275. 
Elaphidion  villosum,  251. 
Elasmopalpus  lignosellus,  127. 
Elateridce,  30,  107. 
Electro  process,  67. 
Elm  Spanworm,  283. 
Emphytus  cinctus,  181. 
Empoasca  mali,  313. 
Empria  maculata,  288. 
Emulsion  : 

carbolic  acid,  77. 

crude  oil,  74. 

distillate  oil,  261,  330. 

kerosene,  73. 

linseed  oil,  74. 
Enarmonia  inter stinctana,  217. 

prunivora,  339. 
Endelomyia  rosoe,  181. 
Enemies  of  insects,  45. 
Ennomos  subsignarius,  283. 
Ephestia  kuehniella,  360. 
Epira;rus  imbricatus,  167,  329. 
Epicauta  cinerea,  145. 

pennsylvanica,  145. 

vittata,  144. 
Epilachna  borealis,  148. 

corrupta,  148. 
Epitrix  cucumeris,  156. 

parvula,  159. 
Epochra  canadensis,  346. 
Erannis  tiliaria,  284. 
Eriocampoides  cerasi,  288. 
Eriophyes  pyri,  308. 
Esophagus  of  insects,  13. 
Estigmene  acrcea,  182. 
Eudamus  proteus,  188. 
Eudemis  vacciniana,  299. 
Eulecanium  nigro/asciatum,  261. 
Euphoria  inda,  323. 


400 


INDEX 


Euphoria,  Indian,  323. 
Euproctis  chrysorrhoea,  292. 
European  Fruit  Lecanium,  260. 

Fruit-scale,  257. 

Grain  Aphis,  198,  317. 

Grain-moth,  359. 
Eurymus  eurytheme,  175. 
Eutettix  tenella,  195. 
Euthrips  nicotiance,  204. 

pyri,  329. 

tritici,  26,  331. 
Evergestis  rimosalis,  177. 
Extension  rods,  101. 
External  anatomy,  7. 
Eyes,  structure,  7. 


Fall  Army  Worm,  173. 

Canker-worm,  281. 

plowing,  56. 

Webworm,  296. 
False  Army-worm,  274. 

Budworm,  Tobacco,  211. 

Chinch-bug,  192. 
Farm  practice,  55. 
Fat  bodies,  14. 
Femur,  9. 
Fever,  malarial,  43. 

spotted,  44. 

typhoid,  42. 

yellow,  44. 
Fidia  viticida,  224. 
Field  crop  insects,  107. 
Filiform  antenna,  6. 
Fire  Worm,  299. 
Fish,  Silver,  357. 

Flat-headed  Apple-tree  Borer,  237. 
Flavescent  Clover-weevil,  167. 
Flea: 

carrier  of  disease,  44. 

Cat  and  Dog,  354. 

characteristics  of,  30, 

Cuban  Hen,  378. 

House,  354. 

illustrated,  30. 
Flea-beetle  : 

Banded,  158. 

Cucumber,  156. 

Grape,  264. 

Hop,  162. 

Pale-striped,  157. 


Potato,  156. 

Spinach,  159. 

Strawberry,  266. 

Striped,  158. 

Sweet  Potato,  161. 

Tobacco,  159. 

Tomato,  156. 

Triangular,  160. 

Western  Cabbage,  159. 
Flour  Beetle : 

Confused,  364. 

Rust-red,  364. 
Flour  Moth,  Mediterranean,  360. 
Flower-midge,  Clover,  219. 
Flower  Thrips,  26,  331. 
Fly: 

Carrot  Rust,  122. 

characteristics  of,  31. 

Clover  Seed  Chalcid,  220. 

Currant  Fruit,  346. 

Gad,  379. 

Grape  Saw,  287. 

Greenhouse  White,  205. 

Hessian,  139. 

Horn,  379. 

Horse,  379. 

Horse  Bot,  371. 

House,  42,  349. 

Ox  Bot,  372. 

Raspberry  Saw,  287. 

Screw-worm,  374. 

Sheep  Bot,  372. 

Stable,  349. 

Strawberry  Saw,  288. 

Tobacco  Suck,  195. 

Western  Grass-stem  Saw,  129. 

Wheat  Saw,  180. 
Fly  poison,  350. 
Forest  Tent  Caterpillar,  269. 
Forester,  Eight-spotted,  275. 
Formalin  and  milk,  350. 
Formicina,  39,  110. 
Foot  of  insect,  10. 
Four-lined  Leaf -bug,  311. 
Four-spotted  Bean  Weevil,,  366. 
Fruit-fly,  Currant,  346. 
Fruit  insects,  224. 
Fruit  Maggot,  Cherry,  345. 
Fruit-tree  Leaf-roller,  302. 
Fruit- worm  : 

Cranberry,  326. 

Gooseberrv,  326. 


INDEX 


401 


Fruit-worm  {continued): 

Green,  325. 

Tomato,  211. 
Fumigants,  80. 
Fumigating  tub,  200. 
Fumigation  : 

greenhouse,  83. 

house,  83. 

nursery  stock,  82. 

tobacco,  83. 
Fungicides  with  posions,  85. 
Fungous  diseases  of  insects,  50. 
Functions  of  stages  in  growth,  20. 


Gadflies,  379. 
Galerucella  cavicollis,  263. 
Gallinippers,  110. 
Gall-maker,  Grape-cane,  246. 
Ganglia,  14. 
Garden  insects,  107. 

Webworm,  183. 
Gas,  fumigating,  80. 
Gasoline  sprayers,  97. 
Gastrophilus  equi,  371. 
Geared  sprayers,  96. 
General  feeders,  fruits  : 

Anomalas,  262. 

Bag-worm,  307. 

Browntail  Moth,  292. 

Buffalo  Tree-hopper,  253. 

Chain  Spotted  Geometer,  284. 

Climbing  Cutworms,  328. 

Clover  Mite,  321. 

Cottony  Maple  Scale,  260. 

Cranberry  Spanworm,  283. 

Elm  Spanworm,  283. 

European  Fruit  Lecanium,  260. 

Fall  Webworm,  296.     . 

Flower  Thrips,  331. 

Forest  Tent  Caterpillar,  269. 

Fruit-tree  Leaf-roller,  302. 

Green  June  Beetle,  324. 

Gypsy  Moth,  290. 

Imbricated  Snout  Beetle,  329. 

Indian  Euphoria.  323. 

New  York  Weevil,  329. 

Oblique  Banded  Leaf  Roller,  302. 

Oyster-shell  Scale,  258. 

Periodical  Cicada,  253. 

Putnam's  Scale,  257. 

Red-humped  Apple  Caterpillar,  271. 
2d 


Red  Spider,  322. 

San  Jose  Scale,  254. 

Tarnished  Plant-bug,  347. 

Tent  Caterpillar,  266. 

Terrapin  Scale,  261. 

Tree  Crickets,  252. 

Tussock  Moths,  295. 

Twig-pruner,  251. 

Yellow-necked  Caterpillar,  270. 
General  feeders,  garden  : 

Army  Worm,  172. 

Banded  Flea-beetle,  158. 

Blister-beetles,  144. 

Celery  Leaf -tier,  186. 

Chain  Spotted  Geometer,  284. 

Cutworms,  140. 

Fall  Army  Worm,  173. 

Garden  Webworm,  183. 

Grasshoppers,  142. 

Hedgehog  Caterpillar,  182. 

Imbricated  Snout  Beetle,  167. 

Onion  Thrips,  204. 

Pale-striped  Flea-beetle,  157. 

Red  Spider,  207. 

Salt-marsh  Caterpillar,  182. 

Spinach  Aphis,  198. 

Stalk  Borer,  132. 

Striped  Garden  Caterpillar,  171. 

Tarnished  Plant-bug,  192. 

White  Grubs,  109. 

Wireworms,  107. 

Yellow-bear  Caterpillar,  181. 

Zebra-caterpillar,  171. 
Geniculate  antenna,  6. 
Geometridce,  36. 
German  Roach,  353. 
Giant  Water  Bug,  27. 
Oirdler  : 

Cranberry,  231. 

Currant  Stem,  246. 

Grapevine,  247. 

Strawberry  Crown,  230. 

T\\ag,  250. 
Gizzard  of  insects,  13. 

of  cricket,  14. 
Golden  Tortoise  Beetle,  155. 
Gooseberry  Fruit- worm,  326. 
Gooseberry  insects  (see  Currant). 
Gouger,  Plum,  334. 
Grain  Aphis  : 

European,  198,  317. 

Spring,  196. 


402 


INDEX 


Grain  Beetle,  Saw-toothed,  364. 
Grain     insects     (see      Stored      Prod- 
ucts) . 
Grain  Moth  : 

Angoumois,  358. 

European,  359. 
Grain  weevils,  364. 
Granary  Weevil,  364. 
Grape  Berry  Moth,  341. 

Blossom  Midge,  331. 

Cane  Gall-maker,  246. 

Colaspis,  263. 

Curculio,  335. 

Flea-beetle,  264. 

Leaf -folder,  303. 

Leaf -hopper,  311. 

Leaf  Skeletonizer,  276. 

Phylloxera,  227. 

Plume  Moth,  301. 

Root-borer,  231. 

Root-worm,  224. 

Sawfly,  287. 
Grape  insects  (additional) : 

Abbott's  Sphinx,  273. 

Achemon  Sphinx,  272. 

Anomalas,  262. 

Apple  Twig-borer,  250. 

Cottony  Maple  Scale,  260. 

Eight-spotted  Forester,  275. 

Prionid  Borers,  232. 

Rose-chafer,  322. 

San  Jose  Scale,  254. 

Spotted  Pelidnota,  262. 

Tree  Crickets,  252. 
Grapevine  Aphis,  319. 

Girdler,  247. 

Hog  Caterpillar,  272. 
Grapholithidce,  35. 
Grasshoppers,  142. 
Grass-stem  Sawfly,  Western,  129. 
Grass  Thrips,  204. 

Worm,  Northern,  179. 
Grass  insects   (additional),    (see    Tim- 
othy). 
Gray  Blister-beetle,  145. 
Green  Bug,  196. 

Fly,  198. 

Fruit  Worm,  325. 
Greenhouse  fumigation,  83. 
Greenhouse  Leaf-tier,  186. 

Thrips,  203. 

White-fly,  205. 


Greenhouse  insects  (additional)  : 

Climbing  Cutworms,  328. 

Mealy  Bug,  206. 

Oblique  Banded  Leaf  Roller,  188. 

Onion  Thrips,  204. 

Red  Spider,  207. 

Spinach  Aphis,  198. 
Green  June  Beetle,  324. 

Peach  Aphis,  198,  320. 
Ground  beetle,  30. 

Seed-corn,  124. 
Grubs,  White,  109,  225. 
Gryllidoe,  23. 
Gypsy  Moth,  290. 


Hcematobia  serrata,  379. 
Hcematopinus  eurysternus,  374. 

urius,  374. 

-Dituli,  374. 
Haltica  chalybea,  264. 

ignita,  266. 
Hand  picking,  59. 
Hand  pumps,  92. 
Harlequin  Cabbage-bug,  191. 
Harpiphorus  maculata,  288. 
Harrisina  americana,  276. 
Hawk  Moths,  272. 
Hay  Worm,  Clover,  186. 
Head,  appendages,  7. 
Hearing,  organs  of,  16. 
Heart  of  insects,  12. 
Heat     treatment,     for    grain    insects, 

361. 
Hedgehog  Caterpillar,  182, 
Heliothis  ohsoleta,  211. 
Heliothrips  hcemorrhoidalis,  203. 
Hellebore,  68. 
Hellula  undalis,  185. 
H enter ocampa  antiqua,  19,  295. 

definita,  295. 

leucostigma,  295. 
Hemiptera,  26. 
Hen  Flea,  Cuban,  378. 
Hessian-fly,  139. 
Heterocordylus  malinus,  348. 
Heteroptera,  27,  28. 
Hexagonal  disks.  Tool,  119. 
Hickory  Nut  Weevil,  368. 
High-pressure  nozzle,  101. 
Hog  Louse,  374. 


INDEX 


403 


Home-made  lime  sulphur. 

concentrated,  71. 

regular,  73. 
Homoptera,  26,  27. 
Honeydew,  318. 
Hop  Aphis,  203,  321. 

Flea-beetle,  162. 

Plant  Borer,  136. 

Snout-moth,  179. 
Hopper-dozer,  143. 
Horizontal  pumps,  95. 
Horn-fly,  379. 
Horn  Worms,  168. 
Horse  Bot-fly,  371. 
Horseflies,  379. 
Hose,  102. 
House  Ant,  351. 

Flea,  354. 

Fly,  42,  349. 

Mosquito,  350. 

Roach,  353. 
Household  Pests,  349. 
Hyalopterus  arundinis,  321. 
Hydrcecia  immanis,  136. 
Hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  82. 
Hylastinus  obscurus,  116. 
Hymenoptera,  36. 
Hypena  humuli,  179. 
Hyphantria  cunea,  296. 
Hypoderma  lineata,  372. 
Hypopharynx  of  insects,  8. 
Hypsopygia  costalis,  186. 


I chneumonidce ,  37. 
Imbricated  Snout  Beetle,  167,  329. 
Incomplete  metamorphosis,  20. 
Indian  Euphoria,  323. 
Indian-meal  Moth,  361. 
Importation  of  insect  pests,  40. 
Imported  Cabbage  Worm,  176. 

Currant  Worm,  285. 
Insecticides,  contact,  70. 

general  principles,  63. 

poison,  65. 
Insects,  characteristics  of,  5. 
Insects  and  disease,  42. 
Insects : 

domestic  animals.  371. 

garden  and  field  crops,  107. 

household  and  stored  products,  349. 

orchard  and  small  fruits,  224. 


Insect  outbreaks,  3. 
Insect  powder,  76. 
Instinct  of  insects,  18. 
Internal  anatomy  of  insects,  1 
Interrelations  of  insects,  46. 
Intestines  of  insects,  14. 
Iridomyrmex  humilis,  110,  351, 
Iron  extension  rods,  101. 
Isia  Isabella,  182. 
Isosoma  grande,  131. 

hordei,  130. 

tritici,  129. 
Itch  Mite,  of  Poultry,  378. 
Ithycerus  noveboracensis,  239. 
Itonida  tritici.  218. 


Janus  integer,  246. 
Jarring  insects,  333. 
Jassidce,  27,  222. 
Jimson  weed,  351. 
Joint-worm,  129. 
June  Beetle,  Green,  324. 
June  Bugs,  109,  225. 

K 

Katydids,  23. 
Kerosene  emulsion,  73,  74. 
Kidneys  of  insects,  14. 
Knapsack  pump,  93. 


Labium  of  insects,  8. 
Labrum  of  insects,  8. 
Lace  bugs,  28. 
Lachnosterna  fusca,  109. 

spp.,  29,  109,  225. 
Lady  Beetle,  30. 

Bean,  148. 

Squash,  148. 
Lamellate  antenna,  6. 
Languria  mozardi,  127. 
Laphygma  exigua,  174. 

frugiperda,  173. 
Larger  Beet  Leaf-beetle,  147. 

Chestnut  Weevil,  368. 
Laria  pisonim,  368. 
Larva,  defined,  19. 
Lasiocampidce,  36. 
Lasioderma  serricorne,  370. 
Lasius  niger  americanus,  114. 
Laspeyresia  inter siinctana,  217. 


404 


INDEX 


Laspeyresia  prunivora,  339. 
Lead  arsenate,  66. 
Leaf-aphis,  Corn,  198. 
Leaf-aphis  (see  Aphis). 
Leaf-beetle  : 

Bean,  147. 

Cherry,  263. 

Larger  Beet,  147. 

Strawberry,  263. 
Leaf-beetle  (see  Beetle). 
Leaf-bug,  Four-lined,  311. 
Leaf  Grumpier,  297. 
Leaf-folder : 

Grape,  303. 

Lesser  Apple,  306. 
Leafhopper  : 

Apple,  313. 

Beet,  195. 

Grape,  311. 
Leaf-miner : 

Apple  Trumpet,  309. 

Blackberry,  310. 

Spinach,  189. 

Tobacco,  189. 
Leaf-roller : 

Bean,  188. 

Fruit-tree,  302. 

Oblique  Banded,  188,  302. 

Strawberry,  303. 
Leaf-sewer,  Apple,  305. 
Leaf -tier : 

Celery,  186. 

Greenhouse,  186. 
Leaf-weevil : 

Alfalfa,  162. 

Clover,  164. 

Lesser  Clover,  166. 
Leaf -weevil  (see  Weevil). 
Leather  Jackets,  110. 
Lecanium  corni,  260. 
Lecanium,  European  Fruit,  260. 
Leg,  structure  of,  9. 
Lema  trilineata,  146. 
Lepidoptera,  33. 
Lepidosaphes  ulmi,  258. 
Lepisnia  saccharina,  357. 
Leptinotarsa  decemlineata,  Frontispiece, 

63,  145. 
Lesser  Apple  Leaf-folder,  306. 

Apple  Worm,  339. 

Clover  Leaf -weevil,  166. 

Peach-borer,  240. 


Lethocerus  americanus,  27. 
Leucania  unipuncta,  172. 
Lice  : 

Biting,  on  animals,  375. 
on  poultry,  377. 

Hog,  374. 

Long-nosed  Ox,  374. 

Plant  (see  Plant  Lice). 

Poultry,  377. 

Short-nosed  Ox,  374. 

Sucking,  on  animals,  374. 
Light-loving  Anomala,  262. 
Ligyrus  gibbosus,  124. 

rugiceps,  123. 
Lima  Bean  Stem-borer,  136. 
Lime,  dry-slaked,  79. 

putty,  86. 
Lime  sulphur  : 

dilution  table,  72. 

self-boiled,  88. 

solution,  70. 

summer  strength,  87. 
Lime-tree  Winter  Moth,  284. 
Linseed  oil  emulsion,  74. 
Lipeurus  variabilis,  377. 
Little  Red  Ant,  351. 
Lixus  concavus,  138. 
Locustidce,  23. 
Locusts,  142. 

Long-nosed  Ox  Louse,  374. 
Looper  : 

Cabbage,  178. 

Celery,  178. 
Looper  (see  Spanworm,  Canker-worm). 
Louse : 

Hog,  374. 

Long-nosed  Ox,  374. 

Short-nosed  Ox,  374. 
Louse  on  plants  (see  Aphis). 
Loxostege  similalis,  183. 

sticticalis,  184. 
Lygoeidoe,  28. 
Lygidea  mendax,  348. 
Lygus  invitus,  348. 

pratensis,  192,  347. 
Lymantriidce,  36. 
Lyperosia  irritans,  379. 

M 

Macrobasis  unicolor,  144. 
Macrodactylus  subspinosus,  322. 


INDEX 


405 


Macrosiphum  cerealis,  222. 


granaria. 


2'?2 


pisi,  200. 

solanifolii,  202. 

viticola,  319. 
Maggot : 

Apple,  343. 

Barred-wingod  Onion,  121. 

Cabbage,  118. 

Carrot,  122. 

Cherry  Fruit,  345. 

Onion,  120. 

Raspberry  Cane,  245. 

Seed-corn,  121. 

Wheat-stem,  131. 
Maize  Bill-bug,  128. 
Malacosoma  americana,  266. 

disstria,  269. 
Malarial  fever  mosquito,  43. 
Mallophaga,  24. 
Malphigian  tubes,  14. 
Mamestra  legitima,  171. 

picta,  171. 
Mandibles  of  insects,  8. 
Mantidce,  23. 

Margaropus  annulatus,  375. 
Mash,  poison  bran,  68. 
Maxillae  of  insects,  8. 
May  beetles,  109,  225. 
Mayetiola  destructor,  139. 
Meadow  Maggot,  110. 
Meal  Snout-moth,  362. 
Mealworm,  Yellow,  369. 
Mealy  Bug. 

Citrus,  206. 

Sugar-cane,  115. 
Mealy  Plum  Aphis,  321. 
Measuring  Worms  (see  Spanworm). 
Mechanical  means  of  control,  59. 
Medical  Entomology,  42. 
Mediterranean  P'lour  Moth,  300. 
Melanoplus  fcmur-ruhrum,  142. 
Mclanotus  communis,  108. 
Meliana  alhilincn,  214. 
Melittia  satyriniformis,  134. 
Melee  angusticollis,  145. 
Meloidce,  144. 
Melon  Aphis,  199. 

Caterpillar,  216. 
Melon  insects  (additional)  : 

Cucumber  Flea-beetle,  156. 

Pickle  Worm,  215. 


Red  Spider,  207. 

Squash  Borer,  134. 

Squash-bug,  190. 

Squash  Lady  Beetle,  148. 

Striped  Cucumber  Beetle,  150. 

Twelve-spotted   Cucumber   Beetle, 
152. 
Melophagus  ovinus,  376. 
Memythrus  polistiformis,  231, 
Menopon  spp.,  377. 
Meromyza  americana,  131. 
Metallus  rubi,  310. 
Metamorphosis,  complete,  19. 

incomplete,  20. 
Midge : 

Clover  Flower,  219. 

Grape-blossom,  331. 

Pear,  346. 

Sorghum,  219. 

Wheat,  218. 
Migratory  Locust,  143. 
Mineola  indiginella,  297. 

vaccina,  326. 
Miner  : 

Apple  Leaf  Trumpet,  309, 

Asparagus,  138. 

Blackberry  Leaf,  310. 

Spinach  Leaf,  189. 

Tobacco  Leaf,  189. 
Mite: 

characteristics,  5. 

Chicken,  377. 

Clover,  208,  321, 

Depluming,  378. 

Itch,  of  Poultry,  378. 

Peach  Bud,  331. 

Pear-leaf  Blister,  308. 

Sheep  Scab,  376. 
Mixing  tanks,  104. 

Molasses,  added  to  poison  spray,  265, 323. 
Moniliform  antenna,  6. 
Monomorium  minutum,  351. 

pharaonis,  351. 
Monophadnoides  rubi,  287. 
Monoptilota  nuhilella,  136. 
Monoxia  puncticollis,  147. 
Mosquito  : 

disease-carrying,  43. 

fumigants,  351. 

house,  3.50. 

illustrated,  32. 

malarial,  43. 


406 


INDEX 


Moth: 

Angoumois  Grain,  358. 

Browntail,  292. 

Bud,  298. 

Buffalo,  357. 

characteristics,  34. 

Clothes,  355. 

Codling,  337. 

Definite-marked  Tussock,  295. 

Diamond-back,  178. 

European  Grain,  359. 

Grape  Berry,  341. 

Grape  Plume,  301. 

Gyps5^  290. 

Hop  Snout,  179. 

Indian-meal,  361. 

Lime-tree  Winter,  284. 

Meal  Snout,  362. 

Mediterranean  Flour,  360. 

Pea,  217. 

Peach  Twig,  248. 

Rusty  Tussock,  295. 

Strawberry  Crown,  234. 

Tussock,  295. 

White-marked  Tussock,  295. 
Moth  balls,  79,  356. 
Mounding  up  for  borers,  239. 
Mouthparts,  biting,  8. 

beetle,  8. 

honeybee,  9. 

horsefly,  9. 

sucking,  9. 
Murgantia  histrionica,  191. 
Musca  domestica,  42,  349. 
Muscidce,  33. 
Myzus  cerasi,  318. 

persicoB,  198,  320. 

ribis,  319. 

N 

NaphthaHne,  79,  354,  356. 
Native  Currant  Worm,  286. 
Natural  enemies  of  insects,  45. 
Negro  Bug,  348. 
Nervous  system  of  insects,  14. 
New  York  Weevil,  329. 
Nezara  hilaris,  221. 
Nico-fume,  76.  , 
Nicotine  sulphate,  76. 
Noctua  clandestina,  140. 
c-nigrum,  142. 


Noctuidoe,  36,  140,  328. 
Northern  Grass  Worm,  179. 
Notodontidce,  36. 
Nozzles,  100. 

Nursery  stock  fumigation,  82. 
Nuttall's  Blister-beetle,  145. 
Nut  Weevils,  368. 
Nymph,  defined,  20. 
Nysius  ericoe,  192. 


Oat  Insects  (see  Wheat). 

Oberea  bimaculata,  245. 

Oblique  Banded  Leaf  Roller,  188,  302. 

Odonata,  24. 

Q^canthus  spp.,  252. 

CEstridcc,  33. 

a*Jstrus  ovis,  372. 

Oil  barrier,  194. 

Oil  Emulsion  : 

distillate,  261,  330. 

kerosene,  73. 

linseed,  74. 
Oil,  repellent,  for  cattle,  373. 
Oncideres  cingulata,  250. 
Onion  Maggot,  120. 

Barred-winged,  121. 
Onion  Thrips,  204. 
Orchard  insects,  224. 
Orders,  defined,  22. 
Oriental  Cockroach,  353. 
Orthoptera,  23. 
Otiorhynchus  ovatus,  230. 
Ox  Louse : 

Long-nosed,  374. 

Short-nosed,  374. 
Ox  Warble,  372. 
Oxyptilus  periscelidactylus,  301. 
Oyster-shell  Scale,  258. 


Pachymerus  chinensis,  366. 

quadrimaculatus,  366. 
Pachynetnatus  extensicornis,  180. 
Pachyzancla  bipunctalis,  185. 
Paleacrita  vernata,  279. 
Pale-striped  Flea-beetle,  157. 
Palmer-worm,  278. 
Papaipema  nitela,  132. 
Papilio  polyxenes,  170. 


INDEX 


407 


Parasites,  illustrated,  47. 

introduction  of,  49. 
Parasitic  insects,  46. 
Paris  green,  65. 
Parsley  insects  (see  Celery). 
Parsnip  insects  (see  Celery). 
Pea  Aphis,  200. 

Moth,  217. 
Pea  Insects  (see  Bean). 
Peach  and  Plum  Slug,  289. 
Peach  Aphis  : 

Black,  229,  320. 

Green,  320. 
Peach  Bark-beetle,  242. 

Borer,  237. 
Lesser,  240. 

Bud  Mite,  331. 

Twig-moth,  248. 
Peach  insects  (additional)  : 

Bud-moth,  298. 

Cherry  Leaf-beetle,  263. 

Flat-headed  Apple-tree  Borer,  237. 

Green  June  Beetle,  324. 

Indian  Euphoria,  323. 

Pear-slug,  288. 

Periodical  Cicada,  253. 

Plum  Curculio,  332. 

Putnam's  Scale,  257. 

San-  Jose  Scale,  254. 

Scurfy  Scale,  259. 

Shot-borer,  249. 

Shot  Hole  Borer,  241. 

Terrapin  Scale,  261. 
Peanuts,  injury  by  borer,  127. 
Pear-loaf  Blistor-mite,  308. 
Pear  Midgo,  346. 

Psylla,  313. 

Slug,  288. 

Thrips,  329. 
Pear  insects  (additional)  : 

Apple  Twig-borer,  2.50. 

Browntail  Moth,  292. 

Bud-moth,  298. 

Cigar  Case-bearer,  306. 

European  Grain  Aphis,  317. 

Flat-headed  Apple-tree  Borer,  237. 

Green  Fruit  Worm,  325. 

Green  June  Beetle,  324. 

Gypsy  Moth,  290. 

Indian  Euphoria,  323. 

Oblique  Banded  Leaf  Roller,  302. 

Oyster-shell  Scale,  258. 


Pistol  Case-bearer,  307. 

Plant-bugs,  347. 

San  Jose  Scale,  254. 

Scurfy  Scale,  259. 

Shot  Borer,  249. 

Shot  Hole  Borer,  241. 

Terrapin  Scale,  261. 

Tussock  Moths,  295. 
Pear  insects  (see  also  Apple). 
Pea  Weevil,  368. 
Pecan,  Twig-girdler,  250. 

Weevil,  368. 
Pectinate  antenna,  6. 
Pediculidce,  28. 
Pegomya  hrassicce,  118. 

fusciceps,  121. 

vicina,  189. 
Pelidnota,  Spotted,  262. 
PeUdnota  'punctata,  262. 
Pemphigus  betoe,  115. 
Pentatoma  ligata,  221. 
Pentatomidce,  28. 
Peridroma  margaritosa,  328. 
Periodical  Cicada,  253. 
Periplaneta  americana,  353. 

australasice,  353. 
Peronea  minuta,  300,  306. 
Persian  insect  powder,  76, 
Pests : 

domestic  animals,  371. 

field  crops,  107. 

fruit,  224. 

garden,  107. 

household,  349. 

orchard,  224. 

stored  products,  349. 
Pharynx  of  insects,  13. 
Phasmidce,  23. 
Phlegethontius  quinquemaculata,  168. 

sexta,  168. 
Phloeophthorus  liminaris,  242. 
PJdi/ctcenia  ferrugalis,  186. 
Pfiolns  achemon,  272. 
Phorhia  cepetorum,  120. 

ruhivora,  245. 
Phorodon  humuli,  203,  321. 
Phthorimoea  operculella,  117,  189. 
Phijllotreta  pusilla,  159. 

vittata,  158. 
Phylloxera,  Grape,  227. 
Phylloxera  vastatrix,  227. 
Phytonomus  nigrirostis,  166. 


408 


INDEX 


Phytonomus  posticus,  162. 

punctatus,  164. 
Pickle  Worm,  215. 
Pieridoe,  36. 
Pimpla,  37. 
Piophila  casei,  358. 
Pistol  Case-bearer,  307. 
Pithy-gall,  Blackberry,  247. 
Plant-bug : 

Cotton  Boll,  221. 

Tarnished,  192,  347. 
Plant-bug  (see  Bug). 
Planting,  time  of,  57. 
Plant-lice  (see  Aphis). 
Plague,  bubonic,  44. 
Plant-louse,  Potato,  202. 
Plaster  of  Paris,  353. 
Plodia  inter punctella,  361. 
Plowing,  fall,  56. 
Plum  Aphis  : 

Brown,  321. 

Mealy,  321. 
Plum  Curculio,  332. 

Gouger,  334. 
Plum  insects  (additional)  : 

Browntail  Moth,  292. 

Bud-moth,  298. 

Cherry  Leaf-beetle,  263. 

Cherry  Scale,  257. 

European  Fruit-scale,  257. 

Green  June  Beetle,  324. 

Gypsy  Moth,  290. 

Hop  Aphis,  321. 

Lesser  Peach-borer,  240. 

Peach  and  Plum  Slug,  289. 

Peach-borer,  237. 

Peach  Bark-beetle,  242. 

Pear-slug,  288. 

Resplendent  Shield-bearer,  310. 

San  Jose  Scale,  254. 

Shot-borer,  249. 

Shot  Hole  Borer,  241. 

Terrapin  Scale,  261. 
Plum-tree  Sphinx,  274. 
Plume-moth,  Grape,  301. 
Plusia  simplex,  178. 
Plutella  maculipennis,  177-178. 
Poecilocapsus  lineatus,  311. 
Poison  : 

ant,  352. 

bran  mash,  68. 

fly,  350. 


fungicide,  combined,  85. 

hairs,  294. 

insect,  65. 
Polychrosis  viteana,  341. 
Pontia  protodice,  177. 

rapce,  176. 

scales,  illustrated,  33. 
Porthetria  dispar,  290. 
Potato-beetle  : 

Colorado,  Frontispiece,  63,  145. 

Three-lined,  146. 
Potato  Flea-beetle,  156. 

Plant-louse,  202. 

Stalk-borer,  135. 

Tuber  Worm,  117. 
Potato  insects  (additional)  : 

Blister-beetles,  144. 

Carrot  Beetle,  124. 

Leather  Jackets,  110. 

Stalk  Borer,  132. 

White  Grubs,  109. 

Wireworms,  107. 
Potato,  Sweet  (see  Sweet  Potato). 
Poultry,  value  of,  57. 
Poultry : 

Itch  Mite,  378. 

Lice,  377. 
Powder  gun,  99. 
Power  sprayers,  97. 
Predaceous  insects,  46. 
Prionid  Borers,  232. 
Prionus  spp.,  232. 
Prodenia  ornithogalli,  213. 
Protective  resemblance,  45. 

Washes,  79. 
Prune  insects  (see  Plum). 
Pruner,  Twig,  251. 
Pseudococcus  calceolarioe,  115. 

citri,  206. 

longispinus,  206. 
Psila  rosae,  122. 
Psoroptes  communis,  376. 
Psylla,  Pear,  313. 
Psylla  pyricola,  313. 
Psyllidw,  28. 

Psylliodes  punctulata,  163. 
Pteronus  ribesii,  285. 
Pul villus  of  insects,  10. 
Pumpkin  insects  (see  Squash). 
Pumps : 

automatic,  93. 

barrel,  94. 


INDEX 


409 


Pumps  {continued): 

bucket,  92. 

compressed  air,  98. 

dusting  apparatus,  99. 

hand,  92. 

horizontal,  95. 

knapsack,  93. 

power  outfits,  97. 

traction  outfits,  96. 
Pupa,  defined,  20. 
Putnam's  Scale,  257. 
Pyralis  farinalis,  362. 
Pyraustidce,  35. 
Pyrethrum,  as  fumigant,  76,  351. 

Q 

Quince  Curculio,  336. 
Quince  insects  (additional)  : 

Cigar  Case-bearer,  306. 

Resplendent  Shield-bearer,  310. 

Terrapin  Scale,  261. 
Quince  insects  (see  also  Apple) . 

R 

Radish  insects  (see  Cabbage) . 
Railroad  Worm,  343. 
Raspberry  Byturus,  342. 

Cane-borer,  245. 

Cane-maggot,  245. 

Root-borer,  234. 

Sawfly,  287. 

Spanworm,  327. 
Raspberry    Insects    (additional),    (see 

Blackberry) . 
Reason,  in  insects,  18. 
Reduviidce,  28. 
Red  Bugs,  Apple,  348. 
Red-humped  Apple  Caterpillar,  271. 
Red-necked  Cane-borer,  244. 
Red  Spider,  207.  322. 
Removing  crop  remnants,  57. 
Repellents,  79. 

Ant  Tape,  352. 

Oil,  373. 
Resemblance,  protective,  45. 
Resin-lime  mixture,  66. 
Resin  soap,  66. 

Respiratory  system,  of  insects,  11. 
Resplendent  Shield-bearer,  310. 
Rhagoletis  cingulata,  345. 

pomonella,  343. 


Rhopobota  vacciniana,  299. 
Rhubarb  Curculio,  138. 
Rhynchites,  29. 
Rice  Weevil,  364. 
Roach : 

American,  353. 

Australian,  353. 

German,  353. 

Oriental,  353. 
Robber  flies,  32. 
Root-aphis  : 

Apple,  226. 

Beet,  115. 

Corn,  113. 

Peach,  229,  320. 

Strawberry,  229. 
Root-borer : 

Clover,  116. 

Grape,  231. 

Raspberry,  234. 

Sweet  Potato,  117. 
Root-louse,  Strawberry,  229. 
Root-worm  : 

Grape,  224. 

Southern  Corn,  111. 

Western  Corn,  111. 
Rose-chafer,  322. 

Rose  insects  (see  Greenhouse  Insects) . 
Rose  Scale,  260. 

Slugs,  181. 
Rosy  Apple  Aphis,  317. 
Rotation  of  crops,  55. 
Round-headed  Apple-tree  Borer,  235. 
Rust-fly,  Carrot,  122. 
Rust-red  Flour  Beetle,  364. 
Rusty  Tussock  Moth,  19,  295. 
Rye  insects  (see  Wheat). 


S 


Saddle-back  Caterpillar,  183. 
Salt-marsh  Caterpillar,  182. 
Saltpeter,  351. 
San  Jose  Scale,  254. 
Sanninoidea  exitiosa,  237. 
Saperda  Candida,  235. 
Saturniidce,  36. 
Sawfly : 

characteristics,  37. 

Grape,  287. 

illustrated,  36. 

Raspberry,  287. 


410 


INDEX 


Sawfly  {continued): 

saws,  illustrated,  37. 

Strawberry,  288. 

Western  Grass-stem,  129. 

Wheat,  180. 
Saw-toothed  Grain  Beetle,  364. 
Scab-mite,  Sheep,  376. 
Scale : 

Cottony  Maple,  260. 

Cherry,  257. 

European  Fruit,  257. 

European  Fruit  Lecanium,  260. 

Oyster-shell,  258. 

Putnam's,  257. 

Rose,  260. 

San  Jose,  254. 

Scurfy,  259. 

Terrapin,  261. 
Scales  of  Lepidoptera,  33. 
Scaraboeidce,  30. 
Schistoceros  hamatus,  250. 
Schizoneura  lanigera,  226. 
Schizura  concinna,  271. 
Scolytus  rugulosus,  241. 
Screens  for  plants,  60. 
Screw-worm,  374. 
Scurfy  Scale,  259. 
Seed-caterpillar,  Clover,  217. 
Seed-corn  Agonoderus,  125. 

Maggot,  121. 
Seed  ticks,  375. 
Selandria  vitis,  287. 
Self-boiled  lime  sulphur,  88. 
Semasia  nigricana,  217. 
Senses  of  insects,  16. 
Serrate  antenna,  6. 
Sesiidce,  35. 

Seventeen-year  Locust,  253. 
Sharpshooters,  Cotton,  222. 
Sheep  Bot-fly,  372. 

Scab-mite,  376. 

Tick,  376. 
Shield-bearer,  Resplendent,  310. 
Short-nosed  Ox  Louse,  374. 
Shot-borer,  249. 
Shot  Hole  Borer,  241. 
Sibine  stimulea,  183. 
Sight,  powers  of,  16. 
Silkworm  moths,  36. 
Silphidce,  30. 

Sihanus  surinamensis,  364. 
Silver  Fish,  357. 


Simulidoe,  32. 
Sinea  diadema,  46. 
Siphonaptera,  30. 
Siphocoryne  avence,  198,  317. 
Sitones  flavescens,  167. 
Sitotroga  cerealella,  358. 
Skeletonizer  : 

Apple-leaf,  277. 

Grape-leaf,  276. 
Skipper,  Cheese,  358. 
Skippers,  characteristics  of,  34. 
Sleeping  sickness,  44. 
Slender  Seed-corn  Ground-beetle,  124. 
Slug : 

Peach  and  Plum,  289. 

Pear,  288. 

Rose,  181. 
Smaller  Corn  Stalk-borer,  127. 
Smeared  Dagger,  275. 
Smell,  sense  of,  16. 
Snout  beetle : 

characteristics  of,  29. 

Imbricated,  167,  329. 
Snout  beetle  (see  Curculio,  and  Weevil) . 
Snout-moth  : 

Hop,  179. 

Meal,  362. 
Soap  solution,  77. 

whale-oil,  77. 
Sodium  arsenite,  352. 
Sorghum  Midge,  219. 
Southern  Beet  Webworm,  185. 

Cabbage  Worm,  177. 

Corn  Root-worm,  111, 
Spanworm : 

Cranberry,  283. 

Currant,  282. 

Elm,  283. 

Raspberry,  327. 
Sphecina,  38,  39. 
Sphecodina  abbottii,  273. 
Sphenophorus  costipennis,  128. 

tnaidis,  128. 

spp.,  128. 

zeoe,  128. 
Sphingidcc,  36. 
Sphinx  : 

Abbott's,  273. 

Achemon,  272. 

Plum-tree,  274. 
Sphinx  drupiferarum,  274, 
Spider,  Red,  207,  322. 


INDEX 


411 


Spilonota  ocellana,  298. 
Spinach  Aphis,  198. 

Flea-beetle,  159. 

Leaf-miner,  189. 
Spinach  insects  (additional),  (see  Beets). 
Spiracles  of  insects,  12. 
Split-worm,  189. 
Spotted  fever,  44. 
Spotted  Pelidnota,  262. 
Spray  machinery  : 

accessories,  100. 

general  principles,  89. 

pumps,  92. 

tanks,  103. 

tower,  95. 
Spread  of  insects,  40. 
Spring  Canker-worm,  279. 

Grain-aphis,  196. 
Square-borer,  Cotton,  213. 
Squash  Borer,  134. 

Bug,  190. 

Lady  Beetle,  148. 
Squash  insects  (additional)  : 

Cucumber  Flea-beetle,  156. 

Melon  Caterpillar,  216. 

Pickle  Worm,  215. 

Striped  Cucumber  Beetle,  150. 

Twelve-spotted    Cucumber  Beetle, 
152. 
Stable  Fly,  349. 
Stalk  Borer,  132. 

Potato,  135. 
Stem-borer,  Lima  Bean,  136. 
Stem-girdler,  Currant,  246. 
Stickers,  for  spray  materials,  66. 
Stinkbugs,  28. 
Stigmata,  12. 
Stomach  of  insects,  13. 
Stomoxys  calcitrans,  349. 
Stored  Product  pests,  349. 
Strainers,  103. 
Strawberry  Crown-borer,  233. 

Crown-girdler,  230. 

Crown  Moth,  234. 

Flea-beetle,  266. 

Leaf-beetle,  263. 

Leaf-roller,  303. 

Root-louse,  229. 

Sawfiy,  288. 

WeevU,  337. 
Strawberry  insects  (additional)  : 

Cranberry  Span  worm,  283. 


Grape  Colaspis,  263. 

Green  Fruit  Worm,  325. 

Melon  Aphis,  199. 

Oblique  Banded  Leaf  Roller,  302. 

Smeared  Dagger,  275. 

White  Grubs,  225. 
Straw- worm. 

Barley,  130. 

Wheat,  131. 
Striped  Blister-beetle,  144. 

Cucumber  Beetle,  150. 

Flea-beetle,  158. 

Garden  Caterpillar,  171. 
Structure  of  insects: 

External,  7. 

Internal,  11. 
Suck-fly,  Tobacco,  195. 
Sucking  insects,  insecticides  for,  70. 
Sucking  Lice,  on  animals,  374. 
Sucking  mouthparts,  9. 
Sugar-beet  insects  (see  Beet). 
Sugar-beet  Webworm,  184. 
Sugar-cane  Beetle,  123. 

Borer,  126. 

Mealy-bug,  115. 
Sulphate  of  nicotine,  76. 
Sulphur  and  lime,  for  poultry  lice,  377. 
Sulphur,  burning,  82. 

for  bedbugs,  355. 

spray,  207,  321. 
Summer  strength  lime  sulphur,  87. 
Swallow-tail  Butterfly,  170. 
Sweet  Potato  Beetle,  Two-striped,  155. 

Flea-beetle,  161. 

Root-borer,  117. 

Tortoise  Beetles,  154. 
Synanthedon  pictipes,  240. 
Synchlora  cerata,  327. 
Syrphidce,  33. 
Syrphus  flies,  33. 
Systena  tceniata,  158. 

tceniata  var.  hlanda,  157. 


Tabanidce,  32,  379. 
Tabanus,  31. 
Tachina  flies,  33,  48. 
Tachinidoe,  33. 
Tanks,  103. 
Tape,  Ant,  352. 
Tar  frames,  196. 


412 


INDEX 


Tarnished  Plant-bug,  192,  347. 
Tarsonemus  wcetei,  331. 
Tarsus  of  insects,  9. 
Taste,  Powers  of,  16. 
Tenehrio  raolitor,  369. 
Tenebroides  mauritanicus,  364. 
Tent  Caterpillar,  266. 

killed  by  bacteria,  51. 

killed  by  fungus,  50. 

Forest,  269. 
Tenthredinidoe,  37. 
Terrapin  Bug,  191. 

Scale,  261. 
Tetranychus  himaculatus,  207,  322. 
Thorax  of  insects,  9. 
Three-lined  Potato  Beetle,  146. 
Thrips : 

characteristics  of,  25. 

Flower,  26,  331. 

Grass,  204. 

Greenhouse,  203. 

Onion,  204. 

Pear,  329. 

Tobacco,  204. 
Thrips  tdbaci,  204. 
Thyreocoridce,  28. 
Thyreocoris  pulicaria,  348. 
Thyridopteryx  ephemeraeformis,  307. 
Thysanoptera,  25. 
Tibia  of  insects,  9. 
Tihicen  septendecim,  253. 
Ticks  and  disease,  44. 
Tick  : 

Cattle,  375. 

Sheep,  376. 
Time  of  planting,  57. 
Timothy  insects  : 

Army  Worm,  172. 

BUl-bugs,  128. 

Chinch-bug,  193. 

Fall  Army  Worm,  173. 

Grasshoppers,  142. 

Grass  Thrips,  204. 

Leather  Jackets,  110. 

Northern  Grass  Worm,  179. 

Root-worms,  111. 

Wheat-head  Army-worm,  214. 

Wheat-stem  Maggot,  131. 

White  Grubs,  109. 
Tinea  granella,  359. 

pellionella,  355. 
Tineina,  35. 


Tingitidce,  28. 
Tipulidce,  110. 
Tischeria  malifoliella,  309. 
Tmetocera  ocellana,  298. 
Toads,  value  of,  46. 
Tobacco  Budworm,  213. 

dust,  79. 

extract,  commercial,  75. 

extract,  home-made,  76. 

False  Budworm,  211. 

Flea-beetle,  159. 

fumigation,  83. 

Leaf -miner,  189. 

Split-worm,  189. 

Suck-fly,  195. 

Thrips,  204. 

Worms,  168. 
Tobacco  insects  (additional)  : 

Celery  Leaf-tier,  186. 

Cutworms,  140. 
Tomato  Flea-beetle,  156. 

Fruit-worm,  211. 

W^orms,  168. 
Tomato  insects  (additional)  : 

Colorado  Potato-beetle,  145. 

Cucumber  Flea-beetle,  156. 

Stalk  Borer,  132. 
Tongue  of  cricket,  16. 
Tortoise  Beetle,  154. 

Black-legged,  155. 

Golden,  155. 
Tortricidce,  35. 
Touch,  sense  of,  17. 
Tower,  for  spraying,  95. 
Toxoptera  graminum,  196. 
Tracheal  system  of  insects,  11. 
Traction  outfits,  96. 
Transformations  of  insects,  19. 
Trap  crops,  62. 
Traps,  insect,  62. 
Tree  Crickets,  252. 
Tree-hopper,  Buffalo,  253. 
Triangular  Flea-beetle,  160. 
Tribolium  confusum,  364. 

navale,  364. 
Trichobaris  trinotata,  135. 
Trichodectes  parumpilosus,  375. 

scalar  is,  375. 

sphcerocephalus,  375. 
Trochanter  of  insects,  9. 
True  bugs,  26. 
Trumpet  Miner,  Apple  Leaf,  309. 


INDEX 


413 


Tuberculosis,  42. 
Tub,  fumigating,  200. 
Turnip  insects  (see  Cabbage). 
Turpentine,  for  Sheep-bots,  372. 
Tussock  Moth  : 

Definite  Marked,  295. 

Rusty,  19,  295. 

White  Marked,  295. 
Twelve-spotted  Asparagus  Beetle,  154. 

Cucumber  Beetle,  152. 
Twig-borer,  Apple,  250. 
Twig-girdler,  250. 
Twig-moth,  Peach,  248. 
Twig-pruner,  251. 

Two-striped  Sweet  Potato  Beetle,  155. 
Tychea  brevicornis,  115. 
Tyloderma  fragarice,  233. 
Types  of  antennae,  6. 
Typhlocyha  comes,  311. 
Typhoid  fever,  42. 
Typophorus  canellus,  263. 


U 


Uranotes  melinus,  213. 


Valves,  90. 
Veratrum  alburn,  68. 
Vermorel  nozzle,  100. 
Vespina,  39. 

Virginia  Creeper,  caterpillars  on,  272, 
275. 

W 

Walking  Sticks,  23. 
Warble,  Ox,  372. 
Washes,  protective,  79. 
W^asps,  38-39. 
Webworm  : 

Cabbage,  185. 

Corn-root,  112. 

Fall,  296. 

Garden,  183. 

Southern  Beet,  185. 

Sugar-beet,  184. 
Weeds,  57. 
Weevil : 

Alfalfa  Leaf,  162. 

Bean,  365. 

Chestnut,  368. 

Clover  Leaf,  164. 


Cotton  Boll,  208. 

Cowpea,  366. 

Flavescent  Clover,  167. 

Four-spotted  Bean,  366. 

Granary,  364. 

Hickory  Nut,  368. 

Larger  Chestnut,  368. 

Lesser  Clover  Leaf,  166. 

New  York,  329. 

Nut,  368. 

Pea,  368. 

Pecan,  368. 

Rice,  364. 

Stored  products,  364. 

Strawberry,  337. 
Western  Cabbage  Flea-beetle,  159 

Corn  Root-worm,  111. 

Grass-stem  Sawfly,  129. 
Whale-oil  soap,  77. 
Wheat-head  Army- worm,  214. 
Wheat  Midge,  218. 

Sawflies,  180. 
W^heat-stem  Maggot,  131. 
Wheat  Straw-w^orm,  131. 

Wire  worm,  107. 
Wheat  insects  (additional)  : 

Aphis,  222. 

Army  Worm,  172. 

Blister-beetles,  144. 

Chinch-bug,  193. 

European  Grain  Aphis,  198. 

Fall  Army  Worm,  173. 

Grass-stem  Sawfly,  129. 

Grass  Thrips,  204. 

Hessian-fly,  139. 

Joint-worm,  129. 

Leather  Jackets,  110. 

Plant  Lice,  222. 

Spring  Grain-aphis,  196. 

Stalk  Borer,  132. 

White  grubs,  109. 

Wireworms,  107. 
W^hite-fly,  Greenhouse,  205. 
White  Grubs,  109,  225. 
White  Lead,  for  borers,  236. 
White  Marked  Tussock  Moth,  295. 
Whitewash,  carbolated,  242. 
Wire  cloth,  103. 

probe,  236. 
Wireworms,  107. 

Wheat,  107. 
Wood  veneer,  236. 


414 


INDEX 


Woolly  Apple  Aphis,  226. 
Worm  : 

Apple,  337. 

Army,  172. 

Bag,  307. 

Barley  Straw,  130. 

Beet  Army,  174. 

Blackhead  Cranberry,  299. 

Cabbage  Web,  185. 

Clover-hay,  186. 

Corn  Ear,  211. 

Corn  Root  Web,  112. 

Cotton,  175. 

Cotton  Boll,  211. 

Cranberry  Fruit,  326. 

Cranberry  Span,  283. 

Cross-striped  Cabbage,  177. 

Currant  Span,  282. 

Cut,  140,  213,  328. 

Elm  Span,  283. 

Fall  Army,  173. 

Fall  Canker,  281. 

Fall  Web,  296. 

False  Army,  274. 

Garden  Web,  183. 

Gooseberry  Fruit,  326. 

Grape  Root,  224. 

Green  Fruit,  325. 

Imported  Cabbage,  176. 

Imported  Currant,  285. 

Joint,  129. 

Lesser  Apple,  339. 

Native  Currant,  286. 

Northern  Grass,  179. 

Palmer,  278. 

Pickle,  215. 

Potato-tuber,  117. 

Railroad,  343. 

Raspberry  Span,  327. 


Screw,  374. 

Southern  Beet  Web,  185. 

Southern  Corn  Root,  111. 

Spring  Canker,  279. 

Sugar  Beet  Web,  184. 

Tobacco,  168. 

Tobacco  Bud,  213. 

Tobacco  False  Bud,  211. 

Tomato,  168. 

Tomato  Fruit,  211. 

Western  Corn  Root,  111. 

Wheat-head  Army,  214. 

Wheat  Straw,  131. 

Wire,  107. 

Yellowhead  Cranberry,  300. 

Yellow  Meal,  369. 
Worms    (see    also    Caterpillar,    Grub, 

Moth,  Beetle). 
Wrigglers,  350. 


Xyleborus  dispar,  249. 

pyri,  249. 
Xylina  antennata,  325. 

laticinerea,  326. 


Yellow-bear  Caterpillar,  181. 
Yellow  fever,  44. 

Yellowhead  Cranberry  Worm,  300. 
Yellow  Mealworm,  369. 
Yellow-necked  Caterpillar,  270. 
Ypsolophus  pometellus,  278. 


Zebra-caterpillar,  171. 
Zophodia  grossularice,  326. 


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On  Fruit-Growing,  etc. 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Nursery  Book 1  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Fruit-Growing 1  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Pruning  Book 1  50 

F.  W.  Card's  Bush  Fruits 1  50 


1  50 
1  50 
1  25 
1  50 
1  25 


On  Dairy  Work,  Farm  Chemistry,  etc. 

Henry  H.  Wing's  Milk  and  Its  Products       .        ...        .  1  50 

J.  G.  Lipman's  Bacteria  and  Country  Life    ....  1  50 

On  Economics  and  Organization 

I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook         .        .  1  25 

George  T.  Fairchild's  Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare         .        .  1  25 

H.  N.  Ogden's  Rural  Hygiene 1  50 

J.  Green's  Law  for  the  American  Farmer      ....  1  50 


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THE  RURAL  MANUALS 

Edited  by  L.  H.  BAILEY 


Manual  of  Farm  Animals 

A  Practical   Guide  to  the  Choosing,   Breeding  and   Keep   of    Horses, 
Cattle,  Sheep  and  Swine. 

By  MERRITT  W.  HARPER 

Assistant  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  in  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture at  Cornell  University 
Illustrated,    decorated   cloth,    12mo,    5Jt5   pages,    index,   $3.00  net, 
by  mail,   $2.18 

"The  work  is  invaluable  as  a  practical  gviide  in  raising  farm  animals." 

— Morning    Telegram. 

"A  book  deserving  of  close  study  as  well  as  being  handy  for  'reference,  and 
should  be  in  the  possession  of  every  farmer  interested  in  stock." — Rural  World. 

Manual  of  Gardening 

A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Making  of  Home  Grounds  and  the  Growing  of 
Flowers,  Fruits  and  Vegetables  for  Home  Use. 

By  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Illustrated,  cloth,  12mo,  BJ^.  pages,  $2.00  net;  by  mail,  $2.17 
This  new  work  is  a  combination  and  revision  of  the  main  parts  of  two  other 
books  by  the  same  author,  "Garden  Making"  and  "Practical  Garden  Book, 
together  with  much  new  material  and  the  result  of  the  experience  of  ten  added 
years.  Among  the  persons  who  collaborated  in  the  preparation  of  the  other  two 
books,  and  whose  contributions  have  been  freely  used  in  this  one,  are  C.  E.  Hunn, 
a  gardener  of  long  experience;  Professor  Ernest  Walker,  reared  as  a  commercial 
florist;  Professor  L.  R.  Taft,  and  Professor  F.  A.  Waugh,  well  known  for  their 
studies  and  writings  on  horticultural  subjects. 

A  STANDARD   WORK   REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 

The  Farm  and  Garden  Rule  Book 

By  LIBERTY  H.  BAILEY 

Illustrated,  cloth,  12mo,  $2.00  net 
When  Professor  Bailey's  "Horticulturist's  Rule  Book"  was  published  nearly 
twenty-five  years  ago,  the  volume  became  a  standard  agricultural  work  running 
through  sixteen  editions.  Taking  this  book  as  a  basis  the  author  has  now  made  a 
wholly  new  book,  extending  it  to  cover  the  field  of  general  farming,  stock-raising, 
dairying,  poultry-rearing,  horticulture,  gardening,  forestry,  and  the  like.  It  is 
essentially  a  small  cyclopedia  of  ready  rules  and  references  packed  full  from  coyer 
to  cover  of  condensed,  meaty  information  and  precepts  on  almost  every  leading 
subject  connected  with  country  life. 

IN    PREPARATION 

Manual  of  Home-Making.  Manual  of  Cultivated  Plants 


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How  to  Keep  Hens  for  Profit 

By  C.  S.  VALENTINE 

Cloth,  illustrated,  12mo,  $1.50  net;  postpaid,  $1.63 

"The  Plymouth  Rock,  Java,  Dominique,  Wyandotte,  Rhode  Island 
Red,  and  Buckeye  breeds  are  discussed  in  the  first  few  chapters.  Con- 
siderable attention  is  given  to  other  breeds  later  on.  Eighteen  beautiful 
half-tone  engravings  adorn  the  book.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  prac- 
tical farmer  and  poultry-grower,  we  consider  this  book  as  one  of  the 
very  best  of  its  kind.  The  author  is  evidently  an  experienced  poultry- 
man.  It  is  a  book  that  should  be  of  special  help  to  beginners  in  poultry, 
while  at  the  same  time  it  contains  much  information  for  the  expert." 

— Farmers'  Tribune. 

The  Beginner  in  Poultry 

By  C.   S.  VALENTINE 

Decorated  Cloth,  profusely  illustrated,  12mo,  $1.50  net;  postpaid,  $1.63 

It  has  been  estimated  that  of  the  five  million  people  who  are  raising 
poultry  in  this  country  today  half  have  gone  at  it  blindly.  And  it  is 
just  as  impossible  to  make  a  success  of  the  poultry  business  without 
preparation  as  it  is  impossible  to  succeed  in  any  other  business  without 
an  acquaintance  with  the  fundamentals.  The  difficulty  which  the 
novice  has  experienced  in  going  at  the  raising  of  chickens  systematically 
in  the  past  has  been  that  he  could  find  no  book  in  which  the  essentials — 
only  the  essentials  and  all  of  them — of  poultry-raising  are  given.  To 
write  such  a  book  has  been  Mr.  Valentine's  purpose  In  "The  Beginner 
in  Poultry"  he  discusses  the  different  breeds  of  fowls,  the  types  of  houses, 
feeding  and  the  kinds  of  food,  raising  chickens  for  the  market  and  for 
their  eggs,  diseases  and  their  cures  and  everything  else  which  will  be  of 
■value  for  the  one  who  is  starting  out — and  much  for  the  seasoned  poul- 
try-raiser as  well. 


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THE  RURAL  OUTLOOK  SET 

By  Professor  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Director  of  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University 

Four  Volumes.    Each,  cloth,  12mo.    Uniform  binding,  attractively  boxed.    $5.00 
net  per  set;  carriage  extra.    Each  volume  also  sold  separately. 

In  this  set  are  included  three  of  Professor  Bailey's  most  popular  books  as  well  as  a 
hitherto  unpublished  one, — "The  Country-Life  Movement."  The  long  and  persist- 
ent demand  for  a  uniform  edition  of  these  little  classics  is  answered  with  the  publica- 
tion of  this  attractive  series. 

The  Country-Life  Movement 

Cloth,  12mo,  220  pages,  $1.25  net;  by  mail,  $1.34 

This  hitherto  unpublished  volume  deals  with  the  present  movement  for  the  re- 
direction of  rural  civilization,  discussing  the  real  country-life  problem  as  distin- 
guished from  the  city  problem,  known  as  the  back-to-the-land  movement. 

The  Outlook  to  Nature  (New  and  Revised  Edition) 

Cloth,  \2mo,  195  pages,  $1.25  net;  by  mail,  $1.34 

In  this  alive  and  bracing  book,  full  of  suggestion  and  encouragement,  Professor 
Bailey  argues  the  importance  of  contact  with  nature,  a  sympathetic  attitude 
toward  which  "means  greater  efficiency,  hopefulness,  and  repose." 

The  State  and  the  Farmer  (New  Edition) 

Cloth,  12mo,  $1.25  net;  by  mail,  $1.34 

It  is  the  relation  of  the  farmer  to  the  government  that  Professor  Bailey  here  discusses 
in  its  varying  aspects.  He  deals  specifically  with  the  change  in  agricultural 
methods,  in  the  shifting  of  the  geographical  centers  of  farming  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  the  growth  of  agricultural  institutions. 

The  Nature  Study  Idea  (New  Edition) 

Cloth,  \2mo,  $1.25  net;  by  mail,  $1.34 

"It  would  be  well,"  the  critic  of  The  Tribxme  Farmer  once  wrote,  "if  'The  Nature 
Study  Idea'  were  in  the  hands  of  every  per.son  who  favors  nature  study  in  the 
public  schools,  of  every  one  who  is  opposed  to  it,  and,  most  important,  of  every 
one  who  teaches  it  or  thinks  he  does."  It  has  been  Professor  Bailey's  purpose  to 
interpret  the  new  school  movement  to  put  the  young  into  relation  and  sumoatby 
with  nature, — a  purpose  which  he  has  admirably  accomplished. 


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